On the Final Frontier

Observations by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope have taken advantage of gravitational lensing to reveal the largest sample of the faintest and earliest known galaxies in the universe. Some of these galaxies formed just 600 million years after the big bang and are fainter than any other galaxy yet uncovered by Hubble. The team has determined for the first time with some confidence that these small galaxies were vital to creating the universe that we see today. An international team of astronomers, led by Hakim Atek of the Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Switzerland, has discovered over 250 tiny galaxies that existed only 600-900 million years after the big bang— one of the largest samples of dwarf galaxies yet to be discovered at these epochs. The light from these galaxies took over 12 billion years to reach the telescope, allowing the astronomers to look back in time when the universe was still very young. Read more: <a href="http://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/hubble-spies-big-bang-frontiers" rel="nofollow">www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/hubble-spies-big-bang-frontiers</a> Credit: NASA/ESA <b><a href="http://www.nasa.gov/audience/formedia/features/MP_Photo_Guidelines.html" rel="nofollow">NASA image use policy.</a></b> <b><a href="http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/home/index.html" rel="nofollow">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a></b> enables NASA’s mission through four scientific endeavors: Earth Science, Heliophysics, Solar System Exploration, and Astrophysics. Goddard plays a leading role in NASA’s accomplishments by contributing compelling scientific knowledge to advance the Agency’s mission. <b>Follow us on <a href="http://twitter.com/NASAGoddardPix" rel="nofollow">Twitter</a></b> <b>Like us on <a href="http://www.facebook.com/pages/Greenbelt-MD/NASA-Goddard/395013845897?ref=tsd" rel="nofollow">Facebook</a></b> <b>Find us on <a href="http://instagrid.me/nasagoddard/?vm=grid" rel="nofollow">Instagram</a></b>

This image from the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope shows the galaxy cluster MACSJ0717.5+3745. This is one of six being studied by the Hubble Frontier Fields programme, which together have produced the deepest images of gravitational lensing ever made. Due to the huge mass of the cluster it is bending the light of background objects, acting as a magnifying lens. It is one of the most massive galaxy clusters known, and it is also the largest known gravitational lens. Of all of the galaxy clusters known and measured, MACS J0717 lenses the largest area of the sky.

This view of Saturn looks toward the planet's night side, lit by sunlight reflected from the rings. A mosaic of some of the very last images captured by Cassini's cameras, it shows the location where the spacecraft would enter the planet's atmosphere hours later. While this area was on the night side of the planet at the time, it would rotate into daylight by the time Cassini made its final dive into Saturn's upper atmosphere, ending its remarkable 13-year exploration of Saturn. Images taken using red, green and blue spectral filters were combined to show the scene in near natural color. The images were taken with Cassini's wide-angle camera on Sept. 14, 2017, at a distance of approximately 394,000 miles (634,000 kilometers) from Saturn. The Cassini spacecraft ended its mission on Sept. 15, 2017. More information is available at https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA21903

The three very different moons seen here provide targets of great interest for planetary scientists studying the Saturn system. Captured here by Cassini, along with the rings, are Tethys at upper right, Enceladus below center and Janus at lower left

An artist's concept illustrates the positions of the Voyager spacecraft in relation to structures formed around our Sun by the solar wind. Also illustrated is the termination shock, a violent region the spacecraft must pass through before reaching the outer limits of the solar system. At the termination shock, the supersonic solar wind abruptly slows from an average speed of 400 kilometers per second to less than 100 kilometer per second (900,000 to less than 225,000 miles per hour). Beyond the termination shock is the solar system's final frontier, the heliosheath, a vast region where the turbulent and hot solar wind is compressed as it presses outward against the interstellar wind that is beyond the heliopause. A bow shock likely forms as the interstellar wind approaches and is deflected around the heliosphere, forcing it into a teardrop-shaped structure with a long, comet-like tail. The exact location of the termination shock is unknown, and it originally was thought to be closer to the Sun than Voyager 1 currently is. As Voyager 1 cruised ever farther from the Sun, it confirmed that all the planets are inside an immense bubble blown by the solar wind and the termination shock was much more distant. http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA04927

Will.i.am's is seen just after he conducted the National Symphony Orchestra during the "Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

Conductor Emil de Cou leads the final performance of the National Symphony Orchestra during the "Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

Conductor Emil de Cou leads the National Symphony Orchestra during the "Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

Conductor Emil de Cou and the National Symphony Orchestra stands at the start of the second half of "Space, the Next Frontier" celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

Actor John Cho recites a poem during the "National Symphony Orchestra Pops: Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

Will.i.am speaks before conducting the National Symphony Orchestra during the "Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

Conductor Emil de Cou leads the National Symphony Orchestra during the "Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

Conductor Emil de Cou leads the National Symphony Orchestra during the "Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

Singer-songwriter Grace Potter performs at the "National Symphony Orchestra Pops: Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

Conductor Emil de Cou leads the National Symphony Orchestra during the "Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

Star Trek composer Michael Giacchino conducts the National Symphony Orchestra during the "Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

Conductor Emil de Cou speaks after leading the National Symphony Orchestra during the "Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

Composer Michael Giacchino speaks during the "National Symphony Orchestra Pops: Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

Coheed and Cambria performs at the "National Symphony Orchestra Pops: Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

National Symphony Orchestra members are seen performing during the "Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

Will.i.am's "Reach for the Stars" is performed while he conducts the National Symphony Orchestra during the "Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

NASA's Associate Administrator for the Science Mission Directorate, Thomas Zurbuchen, is seen in a video message during the "National Symphony Orchestra Pops: Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

Conductor Emil de Cou leads the National Symphony Orchestra during the "Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

Students provide backup vocals during a performance of Will.i.am's "Reach for the Stars" at the "National Symphony Orchestra Pops: Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

Conductor Emil de Cou speaks after leading the National Symphony Orchestra during the "Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

This long-exposure image from NASA Hubble Space Telescope of massive galaxy cluster Abell 2744 is the deepest ever made of any cluster of galaxies. Shown in the foreground is Abell 2744, located in the constellation Sculptor.

A NASA logo cake is brought onstage during the "National Symphony Orchestra Pops: Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine, left, speaks during the "National Symphony Orchestra Pops: Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

NASA astronauts Drew Feustel, left, and Scott Tingle, are seen during a video message to the audience of the "National Symphony Orchestra Pops: Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine speaks during the "National Symphony Orchestra Pops: Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

NASA Administrator Charle Bolden, Dr. John Grunsfeld, Dr. Piers Sellers, Goddard Center Director Chris Scolese and MSBR president Ms. Yang hold a meet and greet with Wounded Warriors from Fort Belvoir, MSBR Final Frontier Students and STEM Partners from Summer of Innovation local camps at Vital Signs: Taking the Pulse of Our Planet - Annual NASA reception and lecture hosted by the National Air and Space Museum and Sponsored by the Maryland Space Business Roundtable

NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine speaks during the "National Symphony Orchestra Pops: Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

NASA Administrator Charle Bolden, Dr. John Grunsfeld, Dr. Piers Sellers, Goddard Center Director Chris Scolese and MSBR president Ms. Yang hold a meet and greet with Wounded Warriors from Fort Belvoir, MSBR Final Frontier Students and STEM Partners from Summer of Innovation local camps at Vital Signs: Taking the Pulse of Our Planet - Annual NASA reception and lecture hosted by the National Air and Space Museum and Sponsored by the Maryland Space Business Roundtable

NASA Administrator Charle Bolden, Dr. John Grunsfeld, Dr. Piers Sellers, Goddard Center Director Chris Scolese and MSBR president Ms. Yang hold a meet and greet with Wounded Warriors from Fort Belvoir, MSBR Final Frontier Students and STEM Partners from Summer of Innovation local camps at Vital Signs: Taking the Pulse of Our Planet - Annual NASA reception and lecture hosted by the National Air and Space Museum and Sponsored by the Maryland Space Business Roundtable

Carl Sagan's son, Nick Sagan, left, speaks at the "National Symphony Orchestra Pops: Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

A NASA logo cake is brought onstage during the "National Symphony Orchestra Pops: Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

A NASA logo cake is cut by Administrator Bridenstine at the "National Symphony Orchestra Pops: Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

Star Trek composer Michael Giacchino does the Vulcan salute after conducting the National Symphony Orchestra during the "Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

The Apollo 50th Anniversary logo is unveiled during the "National Symphony Orchestra Pops: Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

NASA astronauts Drew Feustel, left, and Scott Tingle, perform a song by video at the "National Symphony Orchestra Pops: Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

All artists are seen at the conclusion of the "National Symphony Orchestra Pops: Space, the Next Frontier" event celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The event featured music inspired by space including artists will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

The STS-52 insignia, designed by the mission’s crew members, features a large gold star to symbolize the crew's mission on the frontiers of space. A gold star is often used to symbolize the frontier period of the American West. The red star in the shape of the Greek letter lambda represents both the laser measurements taken from the Laser Geodynamic Satellite (LAGEOS II) and the Lambda Point Experiment, which was part of the United States Microgravity Payload (USMP-l). The remote manipulator and maple leaf are emblematic of the Canadian payload specialist who conducted a series of Canadian flight experiments (CANEX-2), including the Space Vision System test.

NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine is seen during a hearing of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation titled "The New Space Race: Ensuring U.S. Global Leadership on the Final Frontier," Wednesday, March 13, 2019 at the Dirksen Senate Office Building in Washington. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine testifies during a hearing of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation titled "The New Space Race: Ensuring U.S. Global Leadership on the Final Frontier," Wednesday, March 13, 2019 at the Dirksen Senate Office Building in Washington. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine testifies during a hearing of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation titled "The New Space Race: Ensuring U.S. Global Leadership on the Final Frontier," Wednesday, March 13, 2019 at the Dirksen Senate Office Building in Washington. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine testifies during a hearing of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation titled "The New Space Race: Ensuring U.S. Global Leadership on the Final Frontier," Wednesday, March 13, 2019 at the Dirksen Senate Office Building in Washington. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

Kevin O'Connell, Director of the Office of Space Commerce at the Department of Commerce, testifies during a hearing of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation titled "The New Space Race: Ensuring U.S. Global Leadership on the Final Frontier," Wednesday, March 13, 2019 at the Dirksen Senate Office Building in Washington. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

Senator Roger Wicker, R-Miss., Chairman of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation is seen during a committee hearing titled "The New Space Race: Ensuring U.S. Global Leadership on the Final Frontier," Wednesday, March 13, 2019 at the Dirksen Senate Office Building in Washington. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

Mastering the art of space robotics, NASA astronaut Loral O’Hara commands the virtual frontier from the mock-up cupola in the Systems Engineering Simulator at NASA’s Johnson Space Center, providing a glimpse into the intense training and preparation for missions abord the International Space Station. Photographer: Josh Valcarcel – Johnson Space Center

Kevin O'Connell, Director of the Office of Space Commerce at the Department of Commerce, testifies during a hearing of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation titled "The New Space Race: Ensuring U.S. Global Leadership on the Final Frontier," Wednesday, March 13, 2019 at the Dirksen Senate Office Building in Washington. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine testifies during a hearing of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation titled "The New Space Race: Ensuring U.S. Global Leadership on the Final Frontier," Wednesday, March 13, 2019 at the Dirksen Senate Office Building in Washington. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

Kevin O'Connell, Director of the Office of Space Commerce at the Department of Commerce, testifies during a hearing of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation titled "The New Space Race: Ensuring U.S. Global Leadership on the Final Frontier," Wednesday, March 13, 2019 at the Dirksen Senate Office Building in Washington. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine testifies during a hearing of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation titled "The New Space Race: Ensuring U.S. Global Leadership on the Final Frontier," Wednesday, March 13, 2019 at the Dirksen Senate Office Building in Washington. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

The north pole of Jupiter's giant moon Ganymede can be seen in this composite image of infrared data from the Jovian Infrared Auroral Mapper (JIRAM) instrument aboard NASA's Juno spacecraft. Five infrared images were taken every 20 minutes, beginning at time of closest approach (far left) on Dec. 26, 2019, when Juno was about 62,000 miles (100,000 kilometers) distant. The infrared imagery provides the first infrared mapping of the massive moon's northern frontier. As Ganymede has no atmosphere to impede the progress of charged particles from the Sun, the surface at its poles is constantly being bombarded by plasma from Jupiter's gigantic magnetosphere. The bombardment has a dramatic effect on Ganymede's ice. Frozen water molecules detected at both poles have no appreciable order to their arrangement, and the amorphous ice has a different infrared signature than the crystalline ice found at Ganymede's equator. JIRAM was designed to capture the infrared light emerging from deep inside Jupiter, probing the weather layer down to 30 to 45 miles (50 to 70 kilometers) below Jupiter's cloud tops. https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA23988

Vice President Mike Pence delivers opening remarks during the National Space Council meeting titled, Moon, Mars, and Worlds Beyond, Winning the Next Frontier, Tuesday, Oct. 23, 2018 at the National War College at Fort Lesley J. McNair in Washington. Chaired by the Vice President, the council's role is to advise the President regarding national space policy and strategy, and review the nation's long-range goals for space activities.Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

Northrop Grumman's L-1011 Stargazer aircraft has arrived at the Skid Strip at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida on Oct. 1, 2019. The company's Pegasus XL rocket, containing NASA's Ionospheric Connection Explorer (ICON), is attached beneath the aircraft. ICON will study the frontier of space - the dynamic zone high in Earth's atmosphere where terrestrial weather from below meets space weather above.

Northrop Grumman's L-1011 Stargazer takes off from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California on Oct. 1, 2019. The company's Pegasus XL rocket, containing NASA's Ionospheric Connection Explorer (ICON), is attached beneath the aircraft. The explorer is targeted to launch on Oct. 9, 2019, from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida. ICON will study the frontier of space - the dynamic zone high in Earth's atmosphere where terrestrial weather from below meets space weather above.

NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine, right, and Kevin O'Connell, Director of the Office of Space Commerce at the Department of Commerce, left, are seen during a hearing of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation titled "The New Space Race: Ensuring U.S. Global Leadership on the Final Frontier," Wednesday, March 13, 2019 at the Dirksen Senate Office Building in Washington. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

The Northrop Grumman Pegasus XL rocket, carrying NASA’s Ionospheric Connection Explorer (ICON), has arrived at the Skid Strip at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida on Oct. 1, 2019. The rocket is attached beneath the company’s L-1011 Stargazer aircraft. ICON will study the frontier of space - the dynamic zone high in Earth's atmosphere where terrestrial weather from below meets space weather above.

NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine speaks during the National Space Council meeting titled, Moon, Mars, and Worlds Beyond, Winning the Next Frontier, Tuesday, Oct. 23, 2018 at the National War College at Fort Lesley J. McNair in Washington. Chaired by the Vice President, the council's role is to advise the President regarding national space policy and strategy, and review the nation's long-range goals for space activities.Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

While photographing the Supermoon on September 17, 2024 for a NASA GRC Aerospace Frontiers article on the 2024 Supermoon, a plane departing Cleveland Hopkins Airport flew right through the middle of the moon. The photographer used a portion of the rocket garden’s Ares 1 rocket and a corner of the NASA GRC hangar building to frame the photograph of the moon. When the plane was seen approaching, the photographer used continuous shutter speed in hopes of capturing the plane and the moon together

Northrop Grumman's L-1011 Stargazer aircraft descends toward the Skid Strip at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida on Oct. 1, 2019. The company's Pegasus XL rocket, containing NASA's Ionospheric Connection Explorer (ICON), is attached beneath the aircraft. ICON will study the frontier of space - the dynamic zone high in Earth's atmosphere where terrestrial weather from below meets space weather above.

The Northrop Grumman Pegasus XL rocket, carrying NASA’s Ionospheric Connection Explorer (ICON), has arrived at the Skid Strip at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida on Oct. 1, 2019. The rocket is attached beneath the company’s L-1011 Stargazer aircraft. ICON will study the frontier of space - the dynamic zone high in Earth's atmosphere where terrestrial weather from below meets space weather above.

The Northrop Grumman Pegasus XL rocket, carrying NASA’s Ionospheric Connection Explorer (ICON), has arrived at the Skid Strip at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida on Oct. 1, 2019. The rocket is attached beneath the company’s L-1011 Stargazer aircraft. ICON will study the frontier of space - the dynamic zone high in Earth's atmosphere where terrestrial weather from below meets space weather above.

Northrop Grumman's L-1011 Stargazer takes off from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California on Oct. 1, 2019. The company's Pegasus XL rocket, containing NASA's Ionospheric Connection Explorer (ICON), is attached beneath the aircraft. The explorer is targeted to launch on Oct. 9, 2019, from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida. ICON will study the frontier of space - the dynamic zone high in Earth's atmosphere where terrestrial weather from below meets space weather above.

Josh Eppard, drummer for the progressive rock band, Coheed and Cambria is interviewed by NASA TV, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts ahead of the "National Symphony Orchestra Pops: Space, the Next Frontier," celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary in Washington DC. The event featured music inspired by space including artists Will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

iss063e068100 (8/12/2020) --- Photo documentation of the Space Studio KIBO setup in the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) aboard the International Space Station (ISS). The Space Frontier Studio KIBO is a broadcasting studio that is constructed and operated in the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM), also known as Kibo. The studio can livestream activities, interactive entertainment, and communication from space.

Northrop Grumman's L-1011 Stargazer aircraft has arrived at the Skid Strip at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida on Oct. 1, 2019. The company's Pegasus XL rocket, containing NASA's Ionospheric Connection Explorer (ICON), is attached beneath the aircraft. ICON will study the frontier of space - the dynamic zone high in Earth's atmosphere where terrestrial weather from below meets space weather above.

ISS028-E-018657 (23 July 2011) --? One of the Expedition 28 crew members aboard the International Space Station photographed this northward looking view featuring the reservoir of Cahora Bassa in extreme western Mozambique, formed by damming the Zambezi River. Also visible are numerous plumes from fires in the wooded plateau region north of the lake on the Mozambique-Zambia frontier.

Vice President Mike Pence, right, speaks to Patrick Shanahan, deputy secretary, Department of Defense, during the National Space Council meeting titled, Moon, Mars, and Worlds Beyond, Winning the Next Frontier, Tuesday, Oct. 23, 2018 at the National War College at Fort Lesley J. McNair in Washington. Chaired by the Vice President, the council's role is to advise the President regarding national space policy and strategy, and review the nation's long-range goals for space activities.Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

Artist: Rick Guidice Space Colonization - Bernal Sphere - The residential area is in the central sphere. Farming regions are in the 'tires.' Mirrors reflect sunlight into the habitat and farms. The large flat panels radiate away extra heat into space, and panels of solar cells provide electricity. Factories and docks for spaceships are at either end of the long central tube. (NOTE: art printed in Book 'Space Colony - Frontier of the 21st Century by Franklyn M. Branley)

Northrop Grumman's L-1011 Stargazer aircraft has arrived at the Skid Strip at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida on Oct. 1, 2019. The company's Pegasus XL rocket, containing NASA's Ionospheric Connection Explorer (ICON), is attached beneath the aircraft. ICON will study the frontier of space - the dynamic zone high in Earth's atmosphere where terrestrial weather from below meets space weather above.

NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine speaks during the National Space Council meeting titled, Moon, Mars, and Worlds Beyond, Winning the Next Frontier, Tuesday, Oct. 23, 2018 at the National War College at Fort Lesley J. McNair in Washington. Chaired by the Vice President, the council's role is to advise the President regarding national space policy and strategy, and review the nation's long-range goals for space activities.Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

Vice President Mike Pence delivers opening remarks during the National Space Council meeting titled, "Moon, Mars, and Worlds Beyond, Winning the Next Frontier," Tuesday, Oct. 23, 2018 at the National War College at Fort Lesley J. McNair in Washington. Chaired by the Vice President, the council's role is to advise the President regarding national space policy and strategy, and review the nation's long-range goals for space activities.Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

The dominant features of the STS-51D emblem are an orbit formed by a Colonial American flag and a Space Shuttle. The flag in orbit signifies the U.S. flag to indicate that it comes from this country and the American people. The original 13- star flag is used to symbolize a continuity of technical achievement and progress since colonial times. The name Discovery preceding the flag represents the spirit of Discovery and exploration of new frontiers which have been a hallmark of American people even before they were formed together as a nation.

NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine, left, and Kevin O'Connell, Director of the Office of Space Commerce at the Department of Commerce are seen during a hearing of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation titled "The New Space Race: Ensuring U.S. Global Leadership on the Final Frontier," Wednesday, March 13, 2019 at the Dirksen Senate Office Building in Washington. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

Members of the National Space Council are seen during a meeting titled, Moon, Mars, and Worlds Beyond, Winning the Next Frontier, at the National War College at Fort Lesley J. McNair, Tuesday, Oct. 23, 2018, in Washington. Chaired by the Vice President, the council's role is to advise the President regarding national space policy and strategy, and review the nation's long-range goals for space activities. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

Michael Giacchino, Star Trek composer, is interviewed by NASA's Social Video Producer Brittany Brown, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts ahead of the "National Symphony Orchestra Pops: Space, the Next Frontier," celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary in Washington DC. The event featured music inspired by space including artists Will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine asks panelists a question during the National Space Council meeting titled, Moon, Mars, and Worlds Beyond, Winning the Next Frontier, Tuesday, Oct. 23, 2018 at the National War College at Fort Lesley J. McNair in Washington. Chaired by the Vice President, the council's role is to advise the President regarding national space policy and strategy, and review the nation's long-range goals for space activities.Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine, left, and Kevin O'Connell, Director of the Office of Space Commerce at the Department of Commerce are seen during a hearing of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation titled "The New Space Race: Ensuring U.S. Global Leadership on the Final Frontier," Wednesday, March 13, 2019 at the Dirksen Senate Office Building in Washington. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

Vice President Mike Pence, center, speaks during the National Space Council meeting titled, Moon, Mars, and Worlds Beyond, Winning the Next Frontier, Tuesday, Oct. 23, 2018 at the National War College at Fort Lesley J. McNair in Washington. Chaired by the Vice President, the council's role is to advise the President regarding national space policy and strategy, and review the nation's long-range goals for space activities.Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

Vice President Mike Pence delivers opening remarks during the National Space Council meeting titled, Moon, Mars, and Worlds Beyond, Winning the Next Frontier, Tuesday, Oct. 23, 2018 at the National War College at Fort Lesley J. McNair in Washington. Chaired by the Vice President, the council's role is to advise the President regarding national space policy and strategy, and review the nation's long-range goals for space activities.Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

The Northrop Grumman Pegasus XL rocket, carrying NASA’s Ionospheric Connection Explorer (ICON), has arrived at the Skid Strip at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida on Oct. 1, 2019. The rocket is attached beneath the company’s L-1011 Stargazer aircraft. ICON will study the frontier of space - the dynamic zone high in Earth's atmosphere where terrestrial weather from below meets space weather above.

Actor John Cho in interviewed by NASA's Social Video Producer, Brittany Brown, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts ahead of the "National Symphony Orchestra Pops: Space, the Next Frontier," celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary in Washington DC. The event featured music inspired by space including artists Will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

Northrop Grumman's L-1011 Stargazer takes off from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California on Oct. 1, 2019. The company's Pegasus XL rocket, containing NASA's Ionospheric Connection Explorer (ICON), is attached beneath the aircraft. The explorer is targeted to launch on Oct. 9, 2019, from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida. ICON will study the frontier of space - the dynamic zone high in Earth's atmosphere where terrestrial weather from below meets space weather above.

Vice President Mike Pence shakes hands with NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine, right, at the conclusion of a National Space Council meeting titled, Moon, Mars, and Worlds Beyond, Winning the Next Frontier, at the National War College at Fort Lesley J. McNair, Tuesday, Oct. 23, 2018, in Washington. Chaired by the Vice President, the council's role is to advise the President regarding national space policy and strategy, and review the nation's long-range goals for space activities. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

NASA's Social Video Producer, Brittany Brown interviews Nick Sagan Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts ahead of the "National Symphony Orchestra Pops: Space, the Next Frontier," celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary in Washington DC. The event featured music inspired by space including artists Will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine, right, is seen with Senator Roger Wicker, R-Miss., Chairman of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation and Senator Maria Cantwell, D-Wash., Ranking Member of the committee prior to a committee hearing titled "The New Space Race: Ensuring U.S. Global Leadership on the Final Frontier," Wednesday, March 13, 2019 at the Dirksen Senate Office Building in Washington. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine, left, and Kevin O'Connell, Director of the Office of Space Commerce at the Department of Commerce are seen during a hearing of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation titled "The New Space Race: Ensuring U.S. Global Leadership on the Final Frontier," Wednesday, March 13, 2019 at the Dirksen Senate Office Building in Washington. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

Will.i.am is interviewed by NASA TV, Friday, June 1, 2018 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts ahead of the "National Symphony Orchestra Pops: Space, the Next Frontier," celebrating NASA's 60th Anniversary in Washington DC. The event featured music inspired by space including artists Will.i.am, Grace Potter, Coheed & Cambria, John Cho, and guest Nick Sagan, son of Carl Sagan. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine, left, and Kevin O'Connell, Director of the Office of Space Commerce at the Department of Commerce are seen during a hearing of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation titled "The New Space Race: Ensuring U.S. Global Leadership on the Final Frontier," Wednesday, March 13, 2019 at the Dirksen Senate Office Building in Washington. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

Vice President Mike Pence speaks with NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine, right, at the conclusion of a National Space Council meeting titled, Moon, Mars, and Worlds Beyond, Winning the Next Frontier, at the National War College at Fort Lesley J. McNair, Tuesday, Oct. 23, 2018, in Washington. Chaired by the Vice President, the council's role is to advise the President regarding national space policy and strategy, and review the nation's long-range goals for space activities. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

While photographing the Supermoon on September 17, 2024 for a NASA GRC Aerospace Frontiers article on the 2024 Supermoon, a plane departing Cleveland Hopkins Airport flew right through the middle of the moon. The photographer used a portion of the rocket garden’s Ares 1 rocket and a corner of the NASA GRC hangar building to frame the photograph of the moon. When the plane was seen approaching, the photographer used continuous shutter speed in hopes of capturing the plane and the moon together.

Members of the National Space Council are seen during a meeting titled, Moon, Mars, and Worlds Beyond, Winning the Next Frontier, at the National War College at Fort Lesley J. McNair, Tuesday, Oct. 23, 2018, in Washington. Chaired by the Vice President, the council's role is to advise the President regarding national space policy and strategy, and review the nation's long-range goals for space activities. Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

Northrop Grumman's L-1011 Stargazer takes off from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California on Oct. 1, 2019. The company's Pegasus XL rocket, containing NASA's Ionospheric Connection Explorer (ICON), is attached beneath the aircraft. The explorer is targeted to launch on Oct. 9, 2019, from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida. ICON will study the frontier of space - the dynamic zone high in Earth's atmosphere where terrestrial weather from below meets space weather above.

NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine testifies along with Kevin O'Connell, Director of the Office of Space Commerce at the Department of Commerce during a hearing of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation titled "The New Space Race: Ensuring U.S. Global Leadership on the Final Frontier," Wednesday, March 13, 2019 at the Dirksen Senate Office Building in Washington. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

Northrop Grumman's L-1011 Stargazer takes off from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California on Oct. 1, 2019. The company's Pegasus XL rocket, containing NASA's Ionospheric Connection Explorer (ICON), is attached beneath the aircraft. The explorer is targeted to launch on Oct. 9, 2019, from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida. ICON will study the frontier of space - the dynamic zone high in Earth's atmosphere where terrestrial weather from below meets space weather above.

NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine asks panelists a question during the National Space Council meeting titled, Moon, Mars, and Worlds Beyond, Winning the Next Frontier, Tuesday, Oct. 23, 2018 at the National War College at Fort Lesley J. McNair in Washington. Chaired by the Vice President, the council's role is to advise the President regarding national space policy and strategy, and review the nation's long-range goals for space activities.Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)

Vice President Mike Pence delivers opening remarks during the National Space Council meeting titled, Moon, Mars, and Worlds Beyond, Winning the Next Frontier, Tuesday, Oct. 23, 2018 at the National War College at Fort Lesley J. McNair in Washington. Chaired by the Vice President, the council's role is to advise the President regarding national space policy and strategy, and review the nation's long-range goals for space activities.Photo Credit: (NASA/Aubrey Gemignani)