STS060-21-031 (3-11 Feb 1994) --- Using a lap top computer, astronaut N. Jan Davis monitors systems for the Commercial Protein Crystal Growth (CPCG) experiment onboard the Space Shuttle Discovery. Davis joined four other NASA astronauts and a Russian cosmonaut for eight days in space aboard Discovery.

iss047e055611 (4/11/2016) --- A view of the JAXA Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) Demo Sample, in the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) Pressurized Module (JPM) aboard the International space Station (ISS). The objective of JAXA High Quality Protein Crystal Growth Demonstration Experiment (JAXA PCG-Demo) is to grow high quality protein crystals in microgravity.

iss047e055613 (4/11/2016) --- A view of the JAXA Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) Demo Sample, in the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) Pressurized Module (JPM) aboard the International space Station (ISS). The objective of JAXA High Quality Protein Crystal Growth Demonstration Experiment (JAXA PCG-Demo) is to grow high quality protein crystals in microgravity.

(PCG) Protein Crystal Growth C-reactive Protein. Plays a major role in human immune system response. Principal Investigator on STS-26 was Charles Bugg.

61C-05-036 (12-18 Jan. 1986) --- U.S. Representative Bill Nelson (Democrat - Florida), STS-61C payload specialist, prepares to photograph individual samples in the Handheld Protein Crystal Growth Experiment (HPCG) on Columbia's middeck. The operations involve the use of four pieces of equipment to attempt the growth of 60 different types of crystals -- 12 by means of dialysis and 48 via the vapor diffusion method. The photo was used by members of the STS-61C crew at their Jan. 23, 1986, Post-Flight Press Conference.

Scientist photographs STS- 26 Post-flight (VDA) Vapor Diffusion Apparatus Tray with (PCG) Protein Crystal Growth Samples.

Orbital Documentation of Porcine Elastase grown in (PCG) Protein Crystal Growth (RIM) Refrigerator Incubator Module

Horse Serum Albumin crystals grown during the USML-1 (STS-50) mission's Protein Crystal Growth Glovebox Experiment. These crystals were grown using a vapor diffusion technique at 22 degrees C. The crystals were allowed to grow for nine days while in orbit. Crystals of 1.0 mm in length were produced. The most abundant blood serum protein, regulates blood pressure and transports ions, metabolites, and therapeutic drugs. Principal Investigator was Edward Meehan.

(PCG) Protein Crystal Growth Porcine Elastase. This enzyme is associated with the degradation of lung tissue in people suffering from emphysema. It is useful in studying causes of this disease. Principal Investigator on STS-26 was Charles Bugg.

(PCG) Protein Crystal Growth Renin. Enzyme produced by the kidneys, plays a major role in the chemical reaction that controls blood pressure. Principal Investigator on STS-26 was Charles Bugg.

(PCG) Protein Crystal Growth Canavalin. The major storage protein of leguminous plants and a major source of dietary protein for humans and domestic animals. It is studied in efforts to enhance nutritional value of proteins through protein engineerings. It is isolated from Jack Bean because of it's potential as a nutritional substance. Principal Investigator on STS-26 was Alex McPherson.

(PCG) Protein Crystal Growth Isocitrate Lyase. Target enzyme for fungicides. A better understanding of this enzyme should lead to the discovery of more potent fungicides to treat serious crop diseases such as rice blast. It regulates the flow of metabolic intermediates required for cell growth. Principal Investigator for STS-26 was Charles Bugg.

(PCG) Protein Crystal Growth Isocitrate Lysase. Target enzyme for fungicides. A better understanding of this enzyme should lead to the discovery of more potent fungicides to treat serious crop diseases such as rice blast. It regulates the flow of metabolic intermediates required for cell growth. Principal Investigator on STS-26 was Charles Bugg.

iss062e087808 (3/11/2020) --- A view of Protein Crystal Growth-10 experiment hardware inside JAXA's (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) Kibo laboratory module aboard the International Space Station (ISS). Microgravity Crystallization of Glycogen Synthase-Glycogenin Protein Complex (CASIS PCG 10) crystallizes human glycogen synthase proteins on the space station. Determining the structure of the human glycogen synthase and full-length glycogenin protein complex could facilitate the development of treatments on Earth for metabolic disorders such as Type 2 diabetes, obesity, rare genetic disorders, and some forms of cancer.

iss056e075928 (7/3/2018) --- Astronaut Alexander Gerst of ESA (European Space Agency), during the JAXA Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) sample retrieval from the Freezer-Refrigerator Of Stirling Cycle 2 (FROST2) and initiation of the crystallization of the samples before inserting them back into the FROST2, where crystallization will continue.

iss049e045287 (10/21/2016) --- Photographic documentation taken during JAXA Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) Installation into the Protein Crystallization Research Facility (PCRF) of the Ryutai Rack.

(PCG) Protein Crystal Growth Human Serum Albumin. Contributes to many transport and regulatory processes and has multifunctional binding properties which range from various metals, to fatty acids, hormones, and a wide spectrum of therapeutic drugs. The most abundant protein of the circulatory system. It binds and transports an incredible variety of biological and pharmaceutical ligands throughout the blood stream. Principal Investigator on STS-26 was Larry DeLucas.

The Interferometer Protein Crystal Growth (IPCG) experiment was designed to measure details of how protein molecules move through a fluid. It was flown on the STS-86 mission for use aboard Russian Space Station Mir in 1998. It studied aspects of how crystals grow - and what conditions lead to the best crystals, details that remain a mystery. IPCG produces interference patterns by spilitting then recombining laser light. This let scientists see how fluid densities - and molecular diffusion - change around a crystal as it grows in microgravity. The heart of the IPCG apparatus is the interferometer cell comprising the optical bench, microscope, other optics, and video camera. IPCG experiment cells are made of optical glass and silvered on one side to serve as a mirror in the interferometer system that visuzlizes crystals and conditions around them as they grow inside the cell. This view shows a large growth cell. The principal investigator was Dr. Alexander McPherson of University of California, Irvine. Co-investigators are William Witherow and Dr. Marc Pusey of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC).

The Interferometer Protein Crystal Growth (IPCG) experiment was designed to measure details of how protein molecules move through a fluid. It was flown on the STS-86 mission for use aboard Russian Space Station Mir in 1998. It studied aspects of how crystals grow - and what conditions lead to the best crystals, details that remain a mystery. IPCG produces interference patterns by spilitting then recombining laser light. This let scientists see how fluid densities - and molecular diffusion - change around a crystal as it grows in microgravity. The heart of the IPCG apparatus is the interferometer cell comprising the optical bench, microscope, other optics, and video camera. IPCG experiment cells are made of optical glass and silvered on one side to serve as a mirror in the interferometer system that visuzlizes crystals and conditions around them as they grow inside the cell. This diagram shows the growth cells. The principal investigator was Dr. Alexander McPherson of University of California, Irvine. Co-investigators are William Witherow and Dr. Marc Pusey of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC).

On the Space Shuttle Orbiter Atlantis' middeck, Astronaut Joseph R. Tarner, mission specialist, works at an area amidst several lockers which support the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment during the STS-66 mission. This particular section is called the Crystal Observation System, housed in the Thermal Enclosure System (COS/TES). Together with the Vapor Diffusion Apparatus (VDA), housed in Single Locker Thermal Enclosure (SLTES), the COS/TES represents the continuing research into the structure of proteins and other macromolecules such as viruses.

The Interferometer Protein Crystal Growth (IPCG) experiment was designed to measure details of how protein molecules move through a fluid. It was flown on the STS-86 mission for use aboard Russian Space Station Mir in 1998. It studied aspects of how crystals grow - and what conditions lead to the best crystals, details that remain a mystery. IPCG produces interference patterns by spilitting then recombining laser light. This let scientists see how fluid densities - and molecular diffusion - change around a crystal as it grows in microgravity. The heart of the IPCG apparatus is the interferometer cell comprising the optical bench, microscope, other optics, and video camera. IPCG experiment cells are made of optical glass and silvered on one side to serve as a mirror in the interferometer system that visuzlizes crystals and conditions around them as they grow inside the cell. This diagram shows the optical layout. The principal investigator was Dr. Alexander McPherson of University of California, Irvine. Co-investigators are William Witherow and Dr. Marc Pusey of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC).

The Interferometer Protein Crystal Growth (IPCG) experiment was designed to measure details of how protein molecules move through a fluid. It was flown on the STS-86 mission for use aboard Russian Space Station Mir in 1998. It studied aspects of how crystals grow - and what conditions lead to the best crystals, details that remain a mystery. IPCG produces interference patterns by spilitting then recombining laser light. This let scientists see how fluid densities - and molecular diffusion - change around a crystal as it grows in microgravity. The heart of the IPCG apparatus is the interferometer cell comprising the optical bench, microscope, other optics, and video camera. IPCG experiment cells are made of optical glass and silvered on one side to serve as a mirror in the interferometer system that visuzlizes crystals and conditions around them as they grow inside the cell. This view shows interferograms produced in ground tests. The principal investigator was Dr. Alexander McPherson of University of California, Irvine. Co-investigators are William Witherow and Dr. Marc Pusey of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC).

Onboard Space Shuttle Columbia (STS-73) Mission Specialists Catherine Cady Coleman works at the glovebox facility in support of the Protein Crystal Growth Glovebox (PCG-GBX) experiment in the United States Microgravity Laboratory 2 (USML-2) Spacelab science module.

Astronaut Wendy B. Lawrence, flight engineer and mission specialist for STS-67, scribbles notes on the margin of a checklist while monitoring an experiment on the Space Shuttle Endeavour's mid-deck. The experiment is the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), which takes up locker space near the Commercial Materials Dispersion Apparatus Instruments Technology Associates Experiment (CMIX).

(PCG) Protein Crystal Growth Gamma-Interferon. Stimulates the body's immune system and is used clinically in the treatment of cancer. Potential as an anti-tumor agent against solid tumors as well as leukemia's and lymphomas. It has additional utility as an anti-ineffective agent, including antiviral, anti-bacterial, and anti-parasitic activities. Principal Investigator on STS-26 was Charles Bugg.

The Interferometer Protein Crstal Growth (IPCG) experiment was designed to measure details of how protein molecules move through a fluid. It was flown on the STS-86 mission for use aboard Russin Space Station Mir in 1998. It studied aspects of how crystals grow - and what conditions lead to the best crystals, details that remain a mystery. IPCG produces interference patterns by splitting then recombining laser light. This let scientists see how fluid densities - and molecular diffusion - change around a crystal as it grows in microgravity. The heart of the IPCG apparatus is the interferometer cell comprising the optical bench, microscope, other optics, and video camera. IPCG experiment cells are made of optical glass and silvered on one side to serve as a mirror in the interferometer system that visualizes crystals and conditions around them as they grow inside the cell. This view shows the complete apparatus. The principal investigator was Dr. Alexander McPherson of the University of California, Irvin. Co-investigators are William Witherow and Dr. Marc Pusey of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center

A Memphis student working at the University of Alabama in Huntsville prepares samples for the first protein crystal growth experiments plarned to be performed aboard the International Space Station (ISS). The proteins are placed in plastic tubing that is heat-sealed at the ends, then flash-frozen and preserved in a liquid nitrogen Dewar. Aboard the ISS, the nitrogen will be allowed to evaporated so the samples thaw and then slowly crystallize. They will be analyzed after return to Earth. Photo credit: NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC)

A Memphis student working at the University of Alabama in Huntsville prepares samples for the first protein crystal growth experiments plarned to be performed aboard the International Space Station (ISS). The proteins are placed in plastic tubing that is heat-sealed at the ends, then flash-frozen and preserved in a liquid nitrogen Dewar. Aboard the ISS, the nitrogen will be allowed to evaporated so the samples thaw and then slowly crystallize. They will be analyzed after return to Earth. Photo credit: NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC)

Memphis students working at the University of Alabama in Huntsville prepare samples for the first protein crystal growth experiments plarned to be performed aboard the International Space Station (ISS). The proteins are placed in plastic tubing that is heat-sealed at the ends, then flash-frozen and preserved in a liquid nitrogen Dewar. Aboard the ISS, the nitrogen will be allowed to evaporated so the samples thaw and then slowly crystallize. They will be analyzed after return to Earth. Photo credit: NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC)

iss056e075950 (July 3, 2018) --- Astronaut Alexander Gerst of ESA (European Space Agency) works inside the Japanese Kibo laboratory module retrieving Protein Crystal Growth samples from a science freezer, also known as the Minus Eighty-Degree Laboratory Freezer for ISS (MELFI).

Chemist Arna Holmes, left, from the University of Alabama in Huntsville, teaches NaLonda Moorer, center, and Maricar Bana, right, both from Terry Parker High School in Jacksonville, Fl, procedures for preparing protein crystal growth samples for flight aboard the International Space Station (ISS). NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, AL, is a sponsor for this educational activity. The proteins are placed in plastic tubing that is heat-sealed at the ends, then flash-frozen and preserved in a liquid nitrogen Dewar. Aborad the ISS, the nitrogen will be allowed to evaporated so the samples thaw and then slowly crystallize. They will be analyzed after return to Earth. Photo credit: NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC)

iss056e075951 (July 3, 2018) --- Astronaut Alexander Gerst of ESA (European Space Agency) works inside the Japanese Kibo laboratory module retrieving Protein Crystal Growth samples from a science freezer, also known as the Minus Eighty-Degree Laboratory Freezer for ISS (MELFI).

STS072-310-007 (11-20 Jan. 1996) --- Astronauts Brent W. Jett Jr. (left) and Koichi Wakata work with the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment at the Single Locker Thermal Enclosure System (STES) on the Space Shuttle Endeavour’s mid-deck. Jett, making his first flight in space, served as the crew’s pilot, while Wakata served as a mission specialist. Wakata, also a first time Shuttle crew member, represents Japan’s National Space Development Agency (NASDA).

61B-02-014 (26 Nov-3 Dec 1985) --- Payload Specialist Charles D. Walker works with the handheld protein growth experiment -- one of a series of tests being flown to study the possibility of crystallizing biological materials. Walker rests the experiment against the larger continuous flow electrophoresis systems experiment.

iss058e001945 (Jan. 3, 2019) --- Expedition 58 Flight Engineer and astronaut Anne McClain of NASA peers into a microscope and takes photographs for the Protein Crystal Growth-16 experiment that is exploring therapies for Parkinson's disease.

iss057e106231 (Nov. 26, 2018) --- European Space Agency (ESA) asrtonaut Alexander Gerst uses a uses a pipette to transfer a protein solution into the Protein Crystal Growth Card for an experiment observing protein crystals associated with Parkinson’s disease to potentially improve treatments on Earth. Crystallization of LRRK2 Under Microgravity Conditions-2 (CASIS PCG 16) evaluates growth of Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) protein crystals in microgravity. LRRK2 is implicated in Parkinson’s disease, but crystals of the protein grown on Earth are too small and compact to study. Detailed analysis of larger, space-grown crystals can define the protein’s exact shape and morphology and help scientists better understand the disease’s pathology.

iss057e106419 (Nov. 30, 2018) --- Samples from the Protein Crystal Growth Card are examined using a microscope for an experiment observing protein crystals associated with Parkinson’s disease to potentially improve treatments on Earth. Crystallization of LRRK2 Under Microgravity Conditions-2 (CASIS PCG 16) evaluates growth of Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) protein crystals in microgravity. LRRK2 is implicated in Parkinson’s disease, but crystals of the protein grown on Earth are too small and compact to study. Detailed analysis of larger, space-grown crystals can define the protein’s exact shape and morphology and help scientists better understand the disease’s pathology.

iss057e106417 (Nov. 30, 2018) --- Samples from the Protein Crystal Growth Card are examined using a microscope for an experiment observing protein crystals associated with Parkinson’s disease to potentially improve treatments on Earth. Crystallization of LRRK2 Under Microgravity Conditions-2 (CASIS PCG 16) evaluates growth of Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) protein crystals in microgravity. LRRK2 is implicated in Parkinson’s disease, but crystals of the protein grown on Earth are too small and compact to study. Detailed analysis of larger, space-grown crystals can define the protein’s exact shape and morphology and help scientists better understand the disease’s pathology.

iss057e106232 (Nov. 26, 2018) --- Commander Alexander Gerst uses a uses a pipette to transfer a protein solution into the Protein Crystal Growth Card for an experiment observing protein crystals associated with Parkinson’s disease to potentially improve treatments on Earth.

jsc2021e007777 - Aeropyrum pernix Flap Endonuclease-1 (FEN-1) protein crystals are shown grown under Earth gravity conditions. FEN-1 serves as the experimental protein for the Phase II Real-time Protein Crystal Growth on Board the International Space Station (Real-Time Protein Crystal Growth-2) investigation. Image courtesy of University of Toledo.

Facilitates the incorporation of glucose into cells. In diabetics, there is either a decrease in or complete lack of insulin, therby leading to several harmful complications. Principal Investigator was Charles Bugg.

Malic Enzyme is a target protein for drug design because it is a key protein in the life cycle of intestinal parasites. After 2 years of effort on Earth, investigators were unable to produce any crystals that were of high enough quality and for this reason the structure of this important protein could not be determined. Crystals obtained from one STS-50 were of superior quality allowing the structure to be determined. This is just one example why access to space is so vital for these studies. Principal Investigator is Larry DeLucas.

The major storage protein of leguminous plants and a major source of dietary protein for humans and domestic animals. It is studied in efforts to enhance nutritional value of proteins through protein engineerings. It is isolated from Jack Bean because of it's potential as a nutritional substance. Principal Investigator was Alexander McPherson.

iss055e004890 (3/24/2018) --- Photographic documentation taken during JAXA Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) Installation into the Protein Crystallization Research Facility (PCRF) of the Ryutai Rack.

The COS consists of a specially designed (VDA) Vapor Diffusion Apparatus tray with 6 chambers, a video camera for each chamber, a lighting system, and associated hardware. By observing the crystal growth in each chamber, researchers can identify which conditions and concentrations of proteins and precipitants are best for promoting the crystal growth to a particular protein.

Mission Specialist George (Pinky) D. Nelson uses a 35 mm camera to photograph a protein crystal grown during the STS-26 Protein Crystal Growth (PCG-II-01) experiment. The protein crystal growth (PCG) carrier is shown deployed from the PCG Refrigerator/Incubator Mocule (R/IM) located in the middeck forward locker. The R/IM contained three Vapor Diffusion Apparatus (VDS) trays (one of which is shown). A total of sixty protein crystal samples were processed during the STS-26 mission.

Lysozyme crystal grown on STS-81. A protein model for documentation of the effects of microgravity on crystal growth. Principal Investigator Dan Carter of New Century Pharmaceuticals.

The Commercial Vapor Diffusion Apparatus will be used to perform 128 individual crystal growth investigations for commercial and science research. These experiments will grow crystals of several different proteins, including HIV-1 Protease Inhibitor, Glycogen Phosphorylase A, and NAD Synthetase. The Commercial Vapor Diffusion Apparatus supports multiple commercial investigations within a controlled environment. The goal of the Commercial Protein Crystal Growth payload on STS-95 is to grow large, high-quality crystals of several different proteins of interest to industry, and to continue to refine the technology and procedures used in microgravity for this important commercial research.

iss060e015014 (7/28/2019) — NASA astronaut Nick Hague is shown holding the CASIS Protein Crystal Growth 15 (CASIS PCG 15) investigation samples aboard the International Space Station (ISS). Microgravity Crystal Growth for Improvement in Neutron Diffraction and the Analysis of Protein Complexes (CASIS PCG 15) seeks a better understanding of enzyme catalysis by examining crystals from two model Pyridoxal phosphate (PLP) dependent enzymes and from a bacteriophage transient deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) repair complex. Analysis of the crystals may reveal catalyst mechanisms and structures and visualize the interaction between the repair proteins. Results could contribute to identification of biomarkers for diagnosis of disease and to development of better antimicrobials.

DCAM, developed by MSFC, grows crystals by the dialysis and liquid-liquid diffusion methods. In both methods, protein crystal growth is induced by changing conditions in the protein. In dialysis, a semipermeable membrane retains the protein solution in one compartment, while allowing molecules of precipitant to pass freely through the membrane from an adjacent compartment. As the precipitant concentration increases within the protein compartment, crystallization begins. In liquid-liquid diffusion, a protein solution and a precipitant solution are layered in a container and allowed to diffuse into each other. This leads to conditions which may induce crystallization of the protein. Liquid-liquid diffusion is difficult on Earth because density and temperature differences cause the solutions to mix rapidly.

iss057e114766 (12/9/2018) --- European Space Agency (ESA) astronaut Alex Gerst is photographed with the Crystallization of RAS in Space (CASIS PCG 17) investigation. CASIS PCG 17grows crystals of KRAS proteins, which have a pivotal role in cell growth and death. Mutations in KRAS proteins are responsible for a third of all cancers and identifying the structure of these proteins is critical to developing therapeutics and treatments. Protein crystals grow larger and more perfectly in microgravity, allowing for detailed laboratory analysis of their structure back on Earth.

iss057e114765 (12/9/2018) --- European Space Agency (ESA) astronaut Alex Gerst is photographed with the Crystallization of RAS in Space (CASIS PCG 17) investigation. CASIS PCG 17grows crystals of KRAS proteins, which have a pivotal role in cell growth and death. Mutations in KRAS proteins are responsible for a third of all cancers and identifying the structure of these proteins is critical to developing therapeutics and treatments. Protein crystals grow larger and more perfectly in microgravity, allowing for detailed laboratory analysis of their structure back on Earth.

iss047e105727 (5/10/2016) --- Photographic documentation of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) High Quality Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) Removal. The PCG-Canister Bags were removed from the Cell Biology Experiment Facility (CBEF) and the Protein Crystallization Research Facility (PCRF) before being stowed for return on SpX-8. The JAXA PCG-Demo investigation crystallizes proteins using the counter-diffusion technique and permeation method that minimizes impurities, forming high-quality crystals for use in medical studies and ecological applications.

The human body contains more than 100,000 types of proteins, each providing information related to our health. Studying these proteins by crystallizing them helps researchers learn more about the body and potential disease treatments. Additionally, researchers have discovered that growing crystals in microgravity allows for slower growth and higher quality crystals. Hopkins and Glover both worked on the RTPCG-2 protein crystal experiment to advance new drug discoveries.

iss065e154962 (July 6, 2021) --- NASA astronaut and Expedition 65 Flight Engineer Megan McArthur sets up a microscope to view protein crystal samples for the Real-time Protein Crystal Growth-2 experiment. The biotechnology study looks at new ways to produce high-quality protein crystals which could lead to new disease therapies on Earth.

iss060e062282 (Sept. 13, 2019) --- Expedition 60 Flight Engineer Andrew Morgan of NASA conducts research for the Microgravity Crystals investigation that crystallizes a membrane protein that is integral to tumor growth and cancer survival. Results may support the development of cancer treatments that target the protein more effectively and with fewer side effects. Morgan is pictured setting up protein crystal samples for observing and photographing inside a microscope. The samples were then stowed inside a specialized incubator, also known as the Space Automated Bioproduct Laboratory.

iss057e074528 (Nov. 9, 2018) --- NASA astronaut Serena Auñón-Chancellor is pictured in the Japanese Kibo lab module mixing protein crystal samples to help scientists understand how they work. BioServe Protein Crystalography-1 (BPC-1) seeks to demonstrate the feasibility of conducting protein crystal growth in real time aboard the International Space Station. Crew members add solutions to the hardware, observe the crystals that form and adjust for follow-on experiments.

iss050e058807 (3/17/2017) --- A view of European Space Agency (ESA) astronaut Thomas Pesquet, during Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) -5 hardware deactivation and stow, from Microgravity Experiment Research Locker Incubator (MERLIN) on Expedite the Processing of Experiments to the Space Station (EXPRESS) Rack 5. The Microgravity Growth of Crystalline Monoclonal Antibodies for Pharmaceutical Applications (CASIS-PCG-5) investigation crystallizes a monoclonal antibody developed by Merck Research Labs. Microgravity enables the growth of extremely high-quality crystals, which allow scientists to study the proteins’ structure, improve drug delivery, manufacturing, and developing better methods for storing these biological molecules.

iss050e058812 (3/17/2017) --- A view of European Space Agency (ESA) astronaut Thomas Pesquet, during Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) -5 hardware deactivation and stow, from Microgravity Experiment Research Locker Incubator (MERLIN) on Expedite the Processing of Experiments to the Space Station (EXPRESS) Rack 5. The Microgravity Growth of Crystalline Monoclonal Antibodies for Pharmaceutical Applications (CASIS-PCG-5) investigation crystallizes a monoclonal antibody developed by Merck Research Labs. Microgravity enables the growth of extremely high-quality crystals, which allow scientists to study the proteins’ structure, improve drug delivery, manufacturing, and developing better methods for storing these biological molecules.

iss050e058802 (3/17/2017) --- A view of European Space Agency (ESA) astronaut Thomas Pesquet, during Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) -5 hardware deactivation and stow, from Microgravity Experiment Research Locker Incubator (MERLIN) on Expedite the Processing of Experiments to the Space Station (EXPRESS) Rack 5. The Microgravity Growth of Crystalline Monoclonal Antibodies for Pharmaceutical Applications (CASIS-PCG-5) investigation crystallizes a monoclonal antibody developed by Merck Research Labs. Microgravity enables the growth of extremely high-quality crystals, which allow scientists to study the proteins’ structure, improve drug delivery, manufacturing, and developing better methods for storing these biological molecules.

iss065e085491 (June 3, 2021) --- NASA astronaut and Expedition 65 Flight Engineer Megan McArthur loads protein crystallography plates with protein solutions for the Real-time Protein Crystal Growth experiment. The biotechnology study demonstrates new methods for producing high-quality protein crystals in microgravity. Results may help identify new targets and develop better drugs to treat a variety of diseases on Earth and advance the commercialization of low-Earth orbit.

iss065e144296 (June 14, 2021) --- NASA astronaut and Expedition 65 Flight Engineer Megan McArthur loads protein crystallography plates with protein solutions, mixes them with custom salt solutions, then seals and transfers the plates for incubation for the Real-Time Protein Crystal Growth-2 experiment. The biotechnology study looks at new ways to produce high-quality protein crystals which could lead to new disease therapies on Earth.

S61-01250 (20 Jan. 1961) --- Photo of the Mercury astronauts standing beside a Convair 106-B aircraft. They are, left to right, M. Scott Carpenter, L. Gordon Cooper Jr., John H. Glenn Jr., Virgil I. Grissom, Walter M. Schirra Jr., Alan B. Shepard Jr. and Donald K. Slayton. EDITOR'S NOTE: Astronaut Gus Grissom died in the Apollo 1 -- Apollo/Saturn (AS-204) -- fire at Cape Kennedy, Florida on Jan. 27, 1967. Astronaut Deke Slayton died from complications of a brain tumor, in League City, Texas on June 13, 1993. Astronaut Shepard died after a lengthy illness in Monterey, California, on July 21, 1998. As of Jan. 1, 1977 none of the seven astronauts remained with the NASA Space Program. However, in October 1998, United States Senator Glenn (Democrat-Ohio) flew as payload specialist on the STS-95 mission. Photo credit: NASA

Final (VDA) Vapor Diffusion Apparatus Tray adjustments before loading into shuttle.

iss060e015022 (7/28/2019) — NASA astronaut Nick Hague is shown holding the Perfect Crystals investigation samples within Styrofoam containers in Node 3 aboard the International Space Station (ISS). Growth of Large, Perfect Protein Crystals for Neutron Crystallography (Perfect Crystals) crystallizes human manganese superoxide dismutase in order to analyze its shape. This sheds light on how the antioxidant protein helps protect the human body from oxidizing radiation and oxides created as a byproduct of metabolism.

iss064e039017 (March 2, 2021) --- NASA astronaut Michael Hopkins loads protein crystallography plates with protein solutions for the Phase II Real-time Protein Crystal Growth experiment, a space commercialization study, that could benefit the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries.

iss064e038995 (March 2, 2021) --- NASA astronaut and Expedition 64 Flight Engineer Michael Hopkins loads protein crystallography plates with protein solutions for the Phase II Real-time Protein Crystal Growth experiment, a space commercialization study, that could benefit the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries.

iss064e039273 (March 2, 2021) --- NASA astronaut and Expedition 64 Flight Engineer Michael Hopkins loads protein crystallography plates with protein solutions for the Phase II Real-time Protein Crystal Growth experiment, a space commercialization study, that could benefit the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries.

Proteins are the building blocks of our bodies and the living world around us. Within our bodies proteins make it possible for red blood cells to carry oxygen throughout the body. Others help transmit nerve impulses so we can hear, smell and feel the world around us. While others play a crucial role in preventing or causing disease. If the structure of a protein is known, then companies can develop new or improved drugs to fight the disease of which the protein is a part. To determine protein structure, researchers must grow near-perfect crystals of the protein. On Earth convection currents, sedimentation and other gravity-induced phenomena hamper crystal growth efforts. In microgravity researchers can grow near-perfect crystals in an environment free of these effects. Because of the enormous potential for new pharmaceutical products the Center for Macromolecular Crystallography--the NASA Commercial Space Center responsible for commercial protein crystal growth efforts has more than fifty major industry and academic partners. Research on crystals of human insulin could lead to improved treatments for diabetes.

Atomic force microscopy uses laser technology to reveal a defect, a double-screw dislocation, on the surface of this crystal of canavalin, a major source of dietary protein for humans and domestic animals. When a crystal grows, attachment kinetics and transport kinetics are competing for control of the molecules. As a molecule gets close to the crystal surface, it has to attach properly for the crystal to be usable. NASA has funded investigators to look at those attachment kinetics from a theoretical standpoint and an experimental standpoint. Dr. Alex McPherson of the University of California, Irvine, is one of those investigators. He uses X-ray diffraction and atomic force microscopy in his laboratory to answer some of the many questions about how protein crystals grow. Atomic force microscopy provides a means of looking at how individual molecules are added to the surface of growing protein crystals. This helps McPherson understand the kinetics of protein crystal growth. McPherson asks, How fast do crystals grow? What are the forces involved? Investigators funded by NASA have clearly shown that such factors as the level of supersaturation and the rate of growth all affect the habit [characteristic arrangement of facets] of the crystal and the defects that occur in the crystal.

iss047e154711 (6/17/2016) --- Photographic documentation of Luch-2M Multipurpose Crystallization Cassette (УБК) within orange case. Struktura is a study of protein crystallization processes and growth of single crystals which are suitable for X-ray structural analysis and structural decoding.

iss058e002064 (1/6/2019) --- CASIS PCG 16 floating in front of Window 7 in the Cupola module. Earth is in the background. Crystallization of LRRK2 Under Microgravity Conditions-2 (CASIS PCG 16) evaluates growth of Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) protein crystals in microgravity. LRRK2 is implicated in Parkinson’s disease, but crystals of the protein grown on Earth are too small and compact to study. Detailed analysis of larger, space-grown crystals can define the protein’s exact shape and morphology and help scientists better understand the disease’s pathology.

Dan Carter and Charles Sisk center a Lysozyme Protein crystal grown aboard the USML-2 shuttle mission. Protein isolated from hen egg-white and functions as a bacteriostatic enzyme by degrading bacterial cell walls. First enzyme ever characterized by protein crystallography. It is used as an excellent model system for better understanding parameters involved in microgravity crystal growth experiments. The goal is to compare kinetic data from microgravity experiments with data from laboratory experiments to study the equilibrium.

This photo shows an individual cell from the Handheld Diffusion Test Cell (HH-DTC) apparatus flown on the Space Shuttle. Similar cells will be used in the Observable Protein Crystal Growth Apparatus (OPCGA) to be operated aboard the International Space Station (ISS). The principal investigator is Dr. Alex McPherson of the University of California, Irvine. Each individual cell comprises two sample chambers with a rotating center section that isolates the two from each other until the start of the experiment and after it is completed. The cells are made from optical-quality quartz glass to allow photography and interferometric observations. Each cell has a small light-emitting diode and lens to back-light the solution. In protein crystal growth experiments, a precipitating agent such as a salt solution is used to absorb and hold water but repel the protein molecules. This increases the concentration of protein until the molecules nucleate to form crystals. This cell is one of 96 that make up the experiment module portion of the OPCGA.

This photo shows the Handheld Diffusion Test Cell (HH-DTC) apparatus flown on the Space Shuttle. Similar cells (inside the plastic box) will be used in the Observable Protein Crystal Growth Apparatus (OPCGA) to be operated aboard the International Space Station (ISS). The principal investigator is Dr. Alex McPherson of the University of California, Irvine. Each individual cell comprises two sample chambers with a rotating center section that isolates the two from each other until the start of the experiment and after it is completed. The cells are made from optical-quality quartz glass to allow photography and interferometric observations. Each cell has a small light-emitting diode and lens to back-light the solution. In protein crystal growth experiments, a precipitating agent such as a salt solution is used to absorb and hold water but repel the protein molecules. This increases the concentration of protein until the molecules nucleate to form crystals. This cell is one of 96 that make up the experiment module portion of the OPCGA.

iss053e037294 (9/22/2017) --- A view of the Advanced Nano Step Cartridge Installation into the Solution Crystallization Observation Facility (SCOF) aboard the International Space Station (ISS). The Effects of Impurities on Perfection of Protein Crystals, Partition Functions, and Growth Mechanisms (Advanced Nano Step) experiment monitors and records how the incorporation of specific impurity molecules affect the development and quality of protein crystals, as they grow in a quartz cell aboard the ISS.

iss053e039947 (9/22/2017) --- NASA astronaut Mark T. Vande Hei is shown with the Advanced Nano Step Cartridge in the Solution Crystallization Observation Facility (SCOF) during installation. The Effects of Impurities on Perfection of Protein Crystals, Partition Functions, and Growth Mechanisms (Advanced Nano Step) experiment monitors and records how the incorporation of specific impurity molecules affect the development and quality of protein crystals, as they grow in a quartz cell aboard the International Space Station (ISS).

Dr. Daniel Carter, president of New Century Pharmaceuticals in Huntsville, Al, is one of three principal investigators in NASA's microgravity protein crystal growth program. Dr. Carter's experties is in albumins. Albumins are proteins in the bloodstream that transport materials, drugs, nutrients, and wastes. Photo credit: NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center

Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-26) astronauts George Nelson, John Lounge, and Richard Covey are pictured training on protein crystal growth (PCG) experiment in Marshall's Building 4708's clean room.

Front view of Observable Protein Crystal Growth Apparatus (OPCGA) experiment residing in a Thermal Enclosure System (TES). Principal Investigator is Alexander McPherson. First flight plarned for ISS.

Joel Kearns viewing a laboratory demonstration of the Observable Protein Crystal Growth Apparatus (OPCGA) experiment module. Principal Investigator is Alexander McPherson. First flight plarned for ISS.

STS066-13-029 (3-14 Nov 1994) --- On the Space Shuttle Atlantis' mid-deck, astronaut Scott E. Parazynski, mission specialist, works at one of two areas onboard the Shuttle which support the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment. This particular section is called the Vapor Diffusion Apparatus (VDA), housed in a Single Locker Thermal Enclosure (STES). Together with the Crystal Observation System, housed in the Thermal Enclosure System (COS/TES) the VDA represents the continuing research into the structures of proteins and other macromolecules such as viruses. In addition to using the microgravity of space to grow high-quality protein crystals for structural analyses, the experiments are expected to help develop technologies and methods to improve the protein crystallization process on Earth as well as in space.

These Vapor Diffusion Apparatus (VDA) trays were first flown in the Thermal Enclosure System (TES) during the USMP-2 (STS-62) mission. Each tray can hold 20 protein crystal growth chambers. Each chamber contains a double-barrel syringe; one barrel holds protein crystal solution and the other holds precipitant agent solution. During the microgravity mission, a torque device is used to simultaneously retract the plugs in all 20 syringes. The two solutions in each chamber are then mixed. After mixing, droplets of the combined solutions are moved onto the syringe tips so vapor diffusion can begin. During the length of the mission, protein crystals are grown in the droplets. Shortly before the Shuttle's return to Earth, the experiment is deactivated by retracting the droplets containing protein crystals, back into the syringes.

iss056e142862_alt (8/13/2018) --- Astronaut Ricky Arnold prepares samples for the Barrios Protein Crystal Growth (Barrios PCG) experiment in the Maintenance Work Area (MWA) of the International Space Station (ISS). The Barrios PCG experiment defined an approach for optimizing protein crystallization conditions on orbit, eliminating the need to return samples to the ground during the optimization phase, which has the potential for saving substantial time and money on future PCG investigations in microgravity.

iss051e052364 (6/2/2017) --- European Space Agency (ESA) astronaut Thomas Pesquet works to remove Canisters from the Protein Crystallization Research Facility (PCRF) for handover to cosmonaut Oleg Novitskiy. The image was taken in the Kibo Japanese Experiment Pressurized Module (JPM) during Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) and Kristallizator experiment operations (OPS).

iss056e142865_alt (8/13/2018) --- Astronaut Ricky Arnold prepares samples for the Barrios Protein Crystal Growth (Barrios PCG) experiment in the Maintenance Work Area (MWA) of the International Space Station (ISS). The Barrios PCG experiment defined an approach for optimizing protein crystallization conditions on orbit, eliminating the need to return samples to the ground during the optimization phase, which has the potential for saving substantial time and money on future PCG investigations in microgravity.

iss056e142871_alt (8/13/2018) --- Astronaut Ricky Arnold prepares samples for the Barrios Protein Crystal Growth (Barrios PCG) experiment in the Maintenance Work Area (MWA) of the International Space Station (ISS). The Barrios PCG experiment defined an approach for optimizing protein crystallization conditions on orbit, eliminating the need to return samples to the ground during the optimization phase, which has the potential for saving substantial time and money on future PCG investigations in microgravity.

On the Space Shuttle Atlantis' mid-deck, astronaut Joseph R. Tanner, mission specialist, works at area amidst several lockers onboard the Shuttle which support the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment. This particular section is called the Crystal Observation System, housed in the Thermal Enclosure System (COS/TES). Together with the Vapor Diffusion Apparatus (VDA), housed in a Single Locker Thermal Enclosure (SLTES) which is out of frame, the Cos/TES represents the continuing research into the structures of proteins and other macromolecules such as viruses.

iss065e066486 (May 24, 2021) --- Expedition 65 Flight Engineer Thomas Pesquet of ESA (European Space Agency) services samples for the Real Time Protein Crystal Growth experiment. The biotechnology study demonstrates new methods for producing high-quality protein crystals in microgravity to potentially develop better drugs to treat a variety of diseases on Earth and advance the commercialization of space.

iss065e066472 (May 24, 2021) --- Expedition 65 Flight Engineer Thomas Pesquet of ESA (European Space Agency) services samples for the Real Time Protein Crystal Growth experiment. The biotechnology study demonstrates new methods for producing high-quality protein crystals in microgravity to potentially develop better drugs to treat a variety of diseases on Earth and advance the commercialization of space.

iss051e052377 96/2/2017) --- European Space Agency (ESA) astronaut Thomas Pesquet and cosmonaut Fyodor Yurchikhin pose with Canister Bags during handover of Canisters removed from the Protein Crystallization Research Facility (PCRF. The image was taken in the Kibo Japanese Experiment Pressurized Module (JPM) during Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) and Kristallizator experiment operations (OPS).

iss065e006581 (April 26, 2021) --- NASA astronaut and Expedition 65 Flight Engineer Michael Hopkins packs components of the Real-time Protein Crystal Growth experiment for return and analysis on Earth. The biotechnology study seeks to demonstrate new methods for producing high-quality protein crystals in microgravity and identify possible targets for drugs to treat diseases on Earth.

High school students screen crystals of various proteins that are part of the ground-based work that supports Alexander McPherson's protein crystal growth experiment. The students also prepared and stored samples in the Enhanced Gaseous Nitrogen Dewar, which was launched on the STS-98 mission for delivery to the ISS. The crystals grown on the ground will be compared with crystals grown in orbit. Participants include Joseph Negron, of Terry Parker High School, Jacksonville, Florida; Megan Miskowski (shown), of Ridgeview High School, Orange Park, Florida; and Sam Swank, of Fletcher High School, Neptune Beach, Florida. The proteins are placed in plastic tubing that is heat-sealed at the ends, then flash-frozen and preserved in a liquid nitrogen Dewar. Aboard the ISS, the nitrogen will be allowed to evaporated so the samples thaw and then slowly crystallize. They will be analyzed after return to Earth. Photo credit: NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center.

High school students screen crystals of various proteins that are part of the ground-based work that supports Alexander McPherson's protein crystal growth experiment. The students also prepared and stored samples in the Enhanced Gaseous Nitrogen Dewar, which was launched on the STS-98 mission for delivery to the ISS. The crystals grown on the ground will be compared with crystals grown in orbit. Participants include Joseph Negron, of Terry Parker High School, Jacksonville, Florida; Megan Miskowski, of Ridgeview High School, Orange Park, Florida; and Sam Swank (shown), of Fletcher High School, Neptune Beach, Florida. The proteins are placed in plastic tubing that is heat-sealed at the ends, then flash-frozen and preserved in a liquid nitrogen Dewar. Aboard the ISS, the nitrogen will be allowed to evaporated so the samples thaw and then slowly crystallize. They will be analyzed after return to Earth. Photo credit: NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center.

High school students screen crystals of various proteins that are part of the ground-based work that supports Alexander McPherson's protein crystal growth experiment. The students also prepared and stored samples in the Enhanced Gaseous Nitrogen Dewar, which was launched on the STS-98 mission for delivery to the ISS. The crystals grown on the ground will be compared with crystals grown in orbit. Participants include Joseph Negron (shown), of Terry Parker High School, Jacksonville, Florida; Megan Miskowski, of Ridgeview High School, Orange Park, Florida; and Sam Swank, of Fletcher High School, Neptune Beach, Florida. The proteins are placed in plastic tubing that is heat-sealed at the ends, then flash-frozen and preserved in a liquid nitrogen Dewar. Aboard the ISS, the nitrogen will be allowed to evaporated so the samples thaw and then slowly crystallize. They will be analyzed after return to Earth. Photo credit: NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center.

iss055e010761 (4/5/2018) --- Photographic documentation of CASIS Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) -11 hardware during CS-DCB-Unpack2 activity aboard the International Space Station (ISS). Neutron Crystallographic Studies of Human Acetylcholinesterase for the Design of Accelerated Reactivators (CASIS PCG 11) produces acetylcholinesterase crystals, a neurotransmitter enzyme. Crystals grown in microgravity are larger, of higher-quality and can be used for a technique called macromolecular neutron crystallography (MNC) to locate hydrogen atoms in the crystal’s structure.

iss055e010753 (4/5/2018) --- Photographic documentation of CASIS Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) -11 hardware during CS-DCB-Unpack2 activity aboard the International Space Station (ISS). Neutron Crystallographic Studies of Human Acetylcholinesterase for the Design of Accelerated Reactivators (CASIS PCG 11) produces acetylcholinesterase crystals, a neurotransmitter enzyme. Crystals grown in microgravity are larger, of higher-quality and can be used for a technique called macromolecular neutron crystallography (MNC) to locate hydrogen atoms in the crystal’s structure.

iss048e038163 (7/17/2016) --- Roscosmos cosmonaut Anatoly Ivanishin displays Luch-2M Multipurpose Crystallization Cassette (УБК) No. 3 during Struktura-Luch-2M (Structure-Beam-2M) experiment hardware activation and deployment. Image was taken in the Zvezda Service Module (SM) aboard the International Space Station (ISS). Struktura is a study of protein crystallization processes and growth of single crystals which are suitable for X-ray structural analysis and structural decoding.

iss048e038162 (7/19/2016) --- The hand of a crewmember displays Luch-2M Multipurpose Crystallization Cassette (УБК) No. 2 during Struktura-Luch-2M (Structure-Beam-2M) experiment hardware activation and deployment. Image was taken in the Zvezda Service Module (SM) aboard the International Space Station (ISS). Struktura is a study of protein crystallization processes and growth of single crystals which are suitable for X-ray structural analysis and structural decoding.

Christiane Gumera, right, a student at Stanton College Preparatory High School in Jacksonville, AL, examines a protein sample while preparing an experiment for flight on the International Space Station (ISS). Merle Myers, left, a University of California, Irvine, researcher, prepares to quick-freeze protein samples in nitrogen. The proteins are in a liquid nitrogen Dewar. Aboard the ISS, the nitrogen will be allowed to evaporated so the samples thaw and then slowly crystallize. They will be anlyzed after return to Earth. Photo credit: NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC)