During World War II, Arsenal workers from Huntsville, Alabama, and surrounding areas responded to the call for civilian defense workers.

During World War II, Arsenal workers from Huntsville, Alabama. and surrounding areas responded to the call for civilian defense workers. This February 20, 1945 photo shows workers filling colored smoke grenades that were used for signaling. (Courtesy of Huntsville/Madison County Public Library)

NASA astronaut Jack Fischer talks with veterans at the World War II Memorial who traveled to Washington, DC with the Buffalo Niagara Honor Flight, Saturday, Nov. 4, 2017. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

NASA astronaut Jack Fischer talks with veterans at the World War II Memorial who traveled to Washington, DC with the Buffalo Niagara Honor Flight, Saturday, Nov. 4, 2017. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

NASA astronaut Jack Fischer talks with veterans at the World War II Memorial who traveled to Washington, DC with the Buffalo Niagara Honor Flight, Saturday, Nov. 4, 2017. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

NASA astronaut Jack Fischer poses for a group photo at the World War II Memorial with veterans who traveled to Washington, DC with the Buffalo Niagara Honor Flight, Saturday, Nov. 4, 2017. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

In this undated file photo, probably from World War II, a V-2 rocket emerges from its camouflaged shelter. The team of German engineers and scientists who developed the V-2 came to the United States after World War II and worked for the U. S. Army at Fort Bliss, Texas and Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama.

The Peenemunde Rocket Team reunited on the steps of Marshall Space Flight Center's (MSFC) Headquarter Building 4200 for a reunion. The Peenemunde Rocket team were first assembled in Germany prior to World War II. They came to the United States at the end of the War and became the nucleus of the United States Army's rocket program.

In the years following World War II, the Army directed that the Huntsville, Alabama Arsenal be advertised for sale. The decision was reversed because the Army found it needed this land for the new missile work that would occur at Redstone Arsenal.

S78-35306 (31 Jan. 1978) --- Astronaut S. David Griggs. (NOTE: He died on June 17, 1989, near Earle, Arkansas, in the crash of a vintage World War II airplane.)

In addition to Dr. Robert Goddard's pioneering work, American experimentation in rocketry prior to World War II grew, primarily in technical societies. This is an early rocket motor designed and developed by the American Rocket Society in 1932.

The Marshall Space Flight Center, a NASA field installation, was established at Huntsville, Alabama, in 1960. The Center was named in honor of General George C. Marshall, the Army Chief of Staff during World War II, Secretary of State, and Nobel Prize Wirner for his world-renowned Marshall Plan.

The Marshall Space Flight Center, a NASA field installation, was established at Huntsville, Alabama, in 1960. The Center was named in honor of General George C. Marshall, the Army Chief of Staff during World War II, Secretary of State, and Nobel Prize Wirner for his world-renowned Marshall Plan.

This archival image was released as part of a gallery comparing JPL's past and present, commemorating the 80th anniversary of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory on Oct. 31, 2016. During World War II, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory had a contract with the U.S. Army to develop rocket torpedoes. This picture from August 1944 shows the test facility, known as the "Tow Channel." It was used for storage for many years before being torn out to make space for the Earth and Space Science Laboratory (Building 300) and the Microdevices Laboratory (Building 302). http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA21124

Front View of McDonald XP-85 Plan Model. Parasite Airplane designed to be carried in the B-36 bombay (never built) At the time it was the smallest Jet powered airplane. The McDonnell XF-85 Goblin was an American prototype fighter aircraft conceived during World War II by McDonnell Aircraft. It was intended to be deployed from the bomb bay of the giant Convair B-36 bomber as a parasite fighter. The XF-85's intended role was to defend bombers from hostile interceptor aircraft, a need demonstrated during World War II

One of many safety posters produced by NACA artists during World War II. The Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory established a Safety Office in 1942 to coordinate and oversee safety-related activities. The lab struggled to maintain a full staff during the war when military research projects were at a peak. NACA management mandated six-day work weeks without overtime and the elimination of holidays. As such, workplace injuries were a serious threat to maintaining productivity needed to sustain the military’s aeronautics efforts.

German technicians stack the various stages of the V-2 rocket in this undated photograph. The team of German engineers and scientists who developed the V-2 came to the United States at the end of World War II and worked for the U. S. Army at Fort Bliss, Texas, and Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama.

A V-2 rocket is hoisted into a static test facility at White Sands, New Mexico. The German engineers and scientists who developed the V-2 came to the United States at the end of World War II and continued rocket testing under the direction of the U. S. Army, launching more than sixty V-2s.

A V-2 rocket takes flight at White Sands, New Mexico, in 1946. The German engineers and scientists who developed the V-2 came to the United States at the end of World War II and continued rocket testing under the direction of the U. S. Army, launching more than sixty V-2s.

KWAJALEIN ATOLL, Marshall Islands - Orbital Science Corp.'s L-1011 aircraft "Stargazer" stands near the runway on Kwajalein Atoll with the company's Pegasus rocket slung underneath in the background near this World War II-era bunker built by the Japanese forces who occupied the island. Photo credit: NASA

This is a portrait of General George C. Marshall in Army uniform. The Marshall Space Flight Center, a NASA field installation, was established in Huntsville, Alabama, in 1960. The Center was named in honor of General George C. Marshall, the Army Chief of Staff during World War II, Secretary of State, and Nobel Prize Winner for his world-renowned Marshall Plan.

An AH-64 (Apache) Longbow fire control full size radar photographed during icing tests in the Icing Research wind tunnel. Built at the end of World War II, the Icing Research Tunnel is the oldest and largest refrigerated icing wind tunnel in the world. It can produce winds that travel up to 395 miles per hour and reach temperatures as low as -30 degrees Fahrenheit. The facility simulates ice formation during flight by spraying a cloud of super-cooled water droplets onto an aircraft component or model.

Monica Manning, Assistant Administrator for Procurement at NASA, introduces Retired U.S. Air Force Honorary Brigadier General Charles McGee and NASA astronaut Alvin Drew during a Black History Month program titled “Trailblazers, The Story of a Tuskegee Airman,” Wednesday, Feb. 5, 2020, at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC. McGee, a pilot with the Tuskegee Airmen during World War II, was a career officer in the Air Force also serving during the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Over his 30 years of service he flew 409 combat missions. Of the 355 Tuskegee pilots who flew in combat, McGee is one of only nine surviving. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

NASA astronaut Alvin Drew speaks with retired U.S. Air Force Honorary Brigadier General Charles McGee during a Black History Month program titled “Trailblazers, The Story of a Tuskegee Airman,” Wednesday, Feb. 5, 2020, at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC. McGee, a pilot with the Tuskegee Airmen during World War II, was a career officer in the Air Force also serving during the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Over his 30 years of service he flew 409 combat missions. Of the 355 Tuskegee pilots who flew in combat, McGee is one of only nine surviving. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

Retired U.S. Air Force Honorary Brigadier General Charles McGee, left, speaks with NASA astronaut Alvin Drew during a Black History Month program titled “Trailblazers, The Story of a Tuskegee Airman,” Wednesday, Feb. 5, 2020, at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC. McGee, a pilot with the Tuskegee Airmen during World War II, was a career officer in the Air Force also serving during the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Over his 30 years of service he flew 409 combat missions. Of the 355 Tuskegee pilots who flew in combat, McGee is one of only nine surviving. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

Retired U.S. Air Force Honorary Brigadier General Charles McGee is seen as he speaks with NASA astronaut Alvin Drew during a Black History Month program titled “Trailblazers, The Story of a Tuskegee Airman,” Wednesday, Feb. 5, 2020, at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC. McGee, a pilot with the Tuskegee Airmen during World War II, was a career officer in the Air Force also serving during the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Over his 30 years of service he flew 409 combat missions. Of the 355 Tuskegee pilots who flew in combat, McGee is one of only nine surviving. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

Retired U.S. Air Force Honorary Brigadier General Charles McGee is seen during a Black History Month program titled “Trailblazers, The Story of a Tuskegee Airman,” Wednesday, Feb. 5, 2020, at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC. McGee, a pilot with the Tuskegee Airmen during World War II, was a career officer in the Air Force also serving during the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Over his 30 years of service he flew 409 combat missions. Of the 355 Tuskegee pilots who flew in combat, McGee is one of only nine surviving. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

Retired U.S. Air Force Honorary Brigadier General Charles McGee, left, speaks with NASA astronaut Alvin Drew during a Black History Month program titled “Trailblazers, The Story of a Tuskegee Airman,” Wednesday, Feb. 5, 2020, at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC. McGee, a pilot with the Tuskegee Airmen during World War II, was a career officer in the Air Force also serving during the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Over his 30 years of service he flew 409 combat missions. Of the 355 Tuskegee pilots who flew in combat, McGee is one of only nine surviving. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

Retired U.S. Air Force Honorary Brigadier General Charles McGee speaks with NASA astronaut Alvin Drew during a Black History Month program titled “Trailblazers, The Story of a Tuskegee Airman,” Wednesday, Feb. 5, 2020, at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC. McGee, a pilot with the Tuskegee Airmen during World War II, was a career officer in the Air Force also serving during the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Over his 30 years of service he flew 409 combat missions. Of the 355 Tuskegee pilots who flew in combat, McGee is one of only nine surviving. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

Retired U.S. Air Force Honorary Brigadier General Charles McGee, left, speaks with NASA astronaut Alvin Drew during a Black History Month program titled “Trailblazers, The Story of a Tuskegee Airman,” Wednesday, Feb. 5, 2020, at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC. McGee, a pilot with the Tuskegee Airmen during World War II, was a career officer in the Air Force also serving during the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Over his 30 years of service he flew 409 combat missions. Of the 355 Tuskegee pilots who flew in combat, McGee is one of only nine surviving. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

Retired U.S. Air Force Honorary Brigadier General Charles McGee speaks with NASA astronaut Alvin Drew during a Black History Month program titled “Trailblazers, The Story of a Tuskegee Airman,” Wednesday, Feb. 5, 2020, at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC. McGee, a pilot with the Tuskegee Airmen during World War II, was a career officer in the Air Force also serving during the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Over his 30 years of service he flew 409 combat missions. Of the 355 Tuskegee pilots who flew in combat, McGee is one of only nine surviving. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

The NACA’s Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory’s baseball team photographed with director Raymond Sharp. The Exchange, which operated the non-profit cafeteria, sponsored several sports teams that participated in local leagues. The laboratory also had several intramural sports leagues. The baseball team, seen here in 1943, was suspended shortly thereafter as many of its members entered the military during World War II. The team was reconstituted after the war and became somewhat successful in the Class A Westlake League. After winning the championship in 1949 and 1950, the team was placed in the more advanced Middleberg League where they struggled.

Retired U.S. Air Force Honorary Brigadier General Charles McGee, left, speaks with NASA astronaut Alvin Drew during a Black History Month program titled “Trailblazers, The Story of a Tuskegee Airman,” Wednesday, Feb. 5, 2020, at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC. McGee, a pilot with the Tuskegee Airmen during World War II, was a career officer in the Air Force also serving during the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Over his 30 years of service he flew 409 combat missions. Of the 355 Tuskegee pilots who flew in combat, McGee is one of only nine surviving. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

Retired U.S. Air Force Honorary Brigadier General Charles McGee, left, speaks with NASA astronaut Alvin Drew during a Black History Month program titled “Trailblazers, The Story of a Tuskegee Airman,” Wednesday, Feb. 5, 2020, at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC. McGee, a pilot with the Tuskegee Airmen during World War II, was a career officer in the Air Force also serving during the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Over his 30 years of service he flew 409 combat missions. Of the 355 Tuskegee pilots who flew in combat, McGee is one of only nine surviving. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

Abe Silverstein, Associate Director of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory, provides a personal tour of the new 10- by 10-Foot Supersonic Wind Tunnel for US Senator George Bender (hat in hand) and General Lemuel Shepherd. Shepherd was Commandant of the Marine Corps and had served in World War I, World War II, and the Korean War. The general was accompanied by Admiral Herbert Leary, in dark uniform. Bender was a Republican Senator from Ohio. Behind Bender is President of the Cleveland Chamber of Commerce Curtis Smith. NACA Lewis managers Eugene Manganiello and Wilson Hunter assist with the tour. Abe Silverstein oversaw all research at the laboratory. Upon taking his post in 1952 he reorganized the research staff and began shifting the focus away from airbreathing aircraft engines to new fields such as high energy fuels, electric propulsion, and nuclear power and propulsion. He was an early advocate of the NACA’s involvement in the space program and crucial to the founding of National Aeronautics and Space Administration in 1958. Silverstein began his career helping design and conduct research in the Full Scale Tunnel in 1929 at the Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory. Silverstein advocated a series of increasingly large supersonic wind tunnels after the war, culminating in the 10- by 10.

A Wright Aeronautical R–2600 Cyclone piston engine installed in the Engine Propeller Research Building, or Prop House, at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory. The R–2600 was among the most powerful engines that emerged during World War II. The engine, which was developed for commercial applications in 1939, was used to power the North American B–25 bomber and several other midsize military aircraft. The higher altitudes required by the military caused problems with the engine's cooling and fuel systems. The military requested that the Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory analyze the performance of the R–2600, improve its cooling system, and reduce engine knock. The NACA researchers subjected the engine to numerous tests in its Prop House. The R–2600 was the subject of the laboratory's first technical report, which was written by members of the Fuels and Lubricants Division. The Prop House contained soundproof test cells in which piston engines and propellers were mounted and operated at high powers. Electrically driven fans drew air through ducts to create a stream of cooling air over the engines. Researchers tested the performance of fuels, turbochargers, water-injection and cooling systems here during World War II. The facility was also investigated a captured German V–I buzz bomb during the war.

A vehicle leaves the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory on August 14, 1945. At 7 p.m. that evening President Truman announced that Japan had accepted terms for surrender and World War II was over. The end of the war brought significant changes for the laboratory. The NACA would cease its troubleshooting of military aircraft and return to research. Researchers would increase their efforts to address the new technologies that emerged during the war. The entire laboratory was reorganized in October to better investigate turbojets, ramjets, and rockets. The guard house sat on the main entrance to the laboratory off of Brookpark Road. The building was fairly small and easily crowded. In the early 1960s a new security facility was built several hundred feet beyond the original guard house. The original structure remained in place for several years but was not utilized. The subsequent structure was replaced in 2011 by a new building and entrance configuration.

General Dwight Eisenhower addressed the staff of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory during an April 11, 1946 visit to Cleveland. The former supreme commander of Allied Expeditionary Forces in Europe was on a tour of several US cities in the months following the end of World War II. The general arrived in Cleveland on his Douglas C-54 Skymaster, the 'Sunflower II'. Eisenhower employed this aircraft while leading forces during the war. Skymasters, the military version of the DC–4 transport aircraft, were used extensively by both the army and navy throughout the war years. NACA Secretary John Victory, Lewis Director Raymond Sharp, and local politicians formally greeted Eisenhower as he deplaned at the NACA hangar. After patiently posing for the press photographers, Eisenhower accompanied Victory and Sharp to the Administration Building for a press conference. The general made a point of downplaying the prospects for another imminent war. Afterwards Eisenhower was given a tour of the laboratory and addressed the NACA Lewis staff assembled outside the Administration Building on the importance of research and development. Eisenhower left the laboratory in a motorcade for a banquet being held in his honor downtown with the Cleveland Aviation Club.

Navajo Code Talker Joe Morris, Sr. shared insights from his time as a secret World War Two messenger with his audience at NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center on Nov. 26, 2002. NASA Dryden is located on Edwards Air Force Base in California's Mojave Desert.

Navajo Code Talker Joe Morris, Sr. shared insights from his time as a secret World War Two messenger with his audience at NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center on Nov. 26, 2002. NASA Dryden is located on Edwards Air Force Base in California's Mojave Desert.

The cutaway drawing of the A-4 (Aggregate-4) rocket. Later renamed the V-2 (Vengeance Weapon-2), The rocket was developed by Dr. Wernher von Braun and the German rocket team at Peenemuende, Germany on the Baltic Sea. At the end of World War II, the team of German engineers and scientists came to the United States and continued rocket research for the Army at Fort Bliss, Texas, and Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama.

In this photograph from the fall of 1943, German technicians wire vehicles for mobile V-2 batteries in an abandoned railroad turnel in the Rhineland. The team of German engineers and scientists who developed the V-2 came to the United States at the end of World War II and worked for the U. S. Army at Fort Bliss, Texas, and Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama.

Test section of the Ames 40 x 80 foot wind tunnel with the overhead doors open. XSB2D-1 airplane being lowered onto the struts by the overhead crane. Mechanics and engineers on orchard ladders aligning the model with ball sockets on the struts. The Douglas BTD Destroyer was an American dive/ torpedo bomber developed for the United States Navy during World War II.

This drawing illustrates the vital dimensions of the A-4 (Aggregate-4). Later renamed the V-2 (Vengeance Weapon-2), the rocket was developed by Dr. Wernher von Braun and the German rocket team at Peenemuende, Germany on the Baltic Sea. At the end of World War II, the team of German engineers and scientists came to the United States and continued rocket research for the Army at Fort Bliss, Texas, and Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama.

Dr. Robert H. Goddard loading a 1918 version of the Bazooka of World War II. From 1930 to 1941, Dr. Goddard made substantial progress in the development of progressively larger rockets, which attained altitudes of 2400 meters, and refined his equipment for guidance and control, his techniques of welding, and his insulation, pumps, and other associated equipment. In many respects, Dr. Goddard laid the essential foundations of practical rocket technology

This German cutaway drawing of the Aggregate-4 (A-4) illustrates the dimensions and internal workings of the rocket. Later renamed the V-2, the rocket was developed by Dr. Wernher von Braun and the German Rocket Team at Peenemuende on the Baltic Sea. At the end of World War II, the team of German engineers and scientists came to the United States to work for the Army at Fort Bliss, Texas, and Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama.

A researcher in the Supercharger Research Division at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory measures the blade thickness on a supercharger. Superchargers were developed at General Electric used to supply additional air to reciprocating engines. The extra air resulted in increased the engine’s performance, particularly at higher altitudes. The Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory had an entire division dedicated to superchargers during World War II. General Electric developed the supercharger in response to a 1917 request from the NACA to develop a device to enhance high-altitude flying. The supercharger pushed larger volumes of air into the engine manifold. The extra oxygen allowed the engine to operate at its optimal sea-level rating even when at high altitudes. Thus, the aircraft could maintain its climb rate, maneuverability and speed as it rose higher into the sky. NACA work on the supercharger ceased after World War II due to the arrival of the turbojet engine. The Supercharger Research Division was disbanded in October 1945 and reconstituted as the Compressor and Turbine Division.

NASA digital content strategist Andres Almeida sings the National Anthem before a discussion between Retired U.S. Air Force Honorary Brigadier General Charles McGee and NASA astronaut Alvin Drew during a Black History Month program titled “Trailblazers, The Story of a Tuskegee Airman,” Wednesday, Feb. 5, 2020, at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC. McGee, a pilot with the Tuskegee Airmen during World War II, was a career officer in the Air Force also serving during the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Over his 30 years of service he flew 409 combat missions. Of the 355 Tuskegee pilots who flew in combat, McGee is one of only nine surviving. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

Zudayyah Taylor-Dunn, president of the NASA Headquarters Chapter of Blacks in Government (BIG), left, and LaVerne Randolph, vice president of the NASA Headquarters Chapter of BIG, present a montage containing an American Flag and Ohio State flag flown in space to Retired U.S. Air Force Honorary Brigadier General Charles McGee during a Black History Month program titled “Trailblazers, The Story of a Tuskegee Airman,” Wednesday, Feb. 5, 2020, at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC. McGee, a pilot with the Tuskegee Airmen during World War II, was a career officer in the Air Force also serving during the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Over his 30 years of service he flew 409 combat missions. Of the 355 Tuskegee pilots who flew in combat, McGee is one of only nine surviving. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

NASA Deputy Associate Administrator Melanie Saunders speaks before a discussion between retired U.S. Air Force Honorary Brigadier General Charles McGee and NASA astronaut Alvin Drew during a Black History Month program titled “Trailblazers, The Story of a Tuskegee Airman,” Wednesday, Feb. 5, 2020, at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC. McGee, a pilot with the Tuskegee Airmen during World War II, was a career officer in the Air Force also serving during the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Over his 30 years of service he flew 409 combat missions. Of the 355 Tuskegee pilots who flew in combat, McGee is one of only nine surviving. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

Robert Pearce, Associate Administrator for NASA’s Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate, left, moderates questions from the audience for retired U.S. Air Force Honorary Brigadier General Charles McGee speaks with NASA astronaut Alvin Drew during a Black History Month program titled “Trailblazers, The Story of a Tuskegee Airman,” Wednesday, Feb. 5, 2020, at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC. McGee, a pilot with the Tuskegee Airmen during World War II, was a career officer in the Air Force also serving during the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Over his 30 years of service he flew 409 combat missions. Of the 355 Tuskegee pilots who flew in combat, McGee is one of only nine surviving. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

Members of the All Souls Church Unitarian Choir lead the audience in “Lift Ev’ry Voice and Sing” after a duscussion between Retired U.S. Air Force Honorary Brigadier General Charles McGee and NASA astronaut Alvin Drew during a Black History Month program titled “Trailblazers, The Story of a Tuskegee Airman,” Wednesday, Feb. 5, 2020, at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC. McGee, a pilot with the Tuskegee Airmen during World War II, was a career officer in the Air Force also serving during the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Over his 30 years of service he flew 409 combat missions. Of the 355 Tuskegee pilots who flew in combat, McGee is one of only nine surviving. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

Robert Pearce, Associate Administrator for NASA’s Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate, speaks before a discussion between retired U.S. Air Force Honorary Brigadier General Charles McGee speaks with NASA astronaut Alvin Drew during a Black History Month program titled “Trailblazers, The Story of a Tuskegee Airman,” Wednesday, Feb. 5, 2020, at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC. McGee, a pilot with the Tuskegee Airmen during World War II, was a career officer in the Air Force also serving during the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Over his 30 years of service he flew 409 combat missions. Of the 355 Tuskegee pilots who flew in combat, McGee is one of only nine surviving. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

NASA digital content strategist Andres Almeida sings the National Anthem before a discussion between Retired U.S. Air Force Honorary Brigadier General Charles McGee and NASA astronaut Alvin Drew during a Black History Month program titled “Trailblazers, The Story of a Tuskegee Airman,” Wednesday, Feb. 5, 2020, at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC. McGee, a pilot with the Tuskegee Airmen during World War II, was a career officer in the Air Force also serving during the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Over his 30 years of service he flew 409 combat missions. Of the 355 Tuskegee pilots who flew in combat, McGee is one of only nine surviving. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

Clayton Turner, Director of NASA’s Langley Research Center, delivers closing remarks following a discussion between Retired U.S. Air Force Honorary Brigadier General Charles McGee and NASA astronaut Alvin Drew during a Black History Month program titled “Trailblazers, The Story of a Tuskegee Airman,” Wednesday, Feb. 5, 2020, at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC. McGee, a pilot with the Tuskegee Airmen during World War II, was a career officer in the Air Force also serving during the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Over his 30 years of service he flew 409 combat missions. Of the 355 Tuskegee pilots who flew in combat, McGee is one of only nine surviving. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)

The Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory’s pilot corps during the final days of World War II: from left to right, Joseph Vensel, Howard Lilly, William Swann, and Joseph Walker. William “Eb” Gough joined the group months after this photograph. These men were responsible for flying the various National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) aircraft to test new engine modifications, study ice buildup, and determine fuel performance. Vensel, a veteran pilot from Langley, was the Chief of Flight Operations and a voice of reason at the laboratory. In April 1947 Vensel was transferred to lead the new Muroc Flight Tests Unit in California until 1966. Lilly was a young pilot with recent Navy experience. Lilly also flew in the 1946 National Air Races. He followed Vensel to Muroc in July 1947 where he became the first NACA pilot to penetrate the sound barrier. On May 3, 1948, Lilly became the first NACA pilot to die in the line of duty. Swann was a young civilian pilot when he joined the NACA. He spent his entire career at the Cleveland laboratory, and led the flight operations group from the early 1960s until 1979. Two World War II veterans joined the crew after the war. Walker was a 24-year-old P–38 reconnaissance pilot. He joined the NACA as a physicist in early 1945 but soon worked his way into the cadre of pilots. Walker later gained fame as an X-plane pilot at Muroc and was killed in a June 1966 fatal crash. Gough survived being shot down twice during the war and was decorated for flying rescue missions in occupied areas.

CAPE CANAVERAL, Fla. – A contrast in speed and design, the F/A-18 Super Hornet jet (behind) flies alongside a World War II Vought F4U Corsair during the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex Space and Air Show Nov. 8-9 at NASA's Kennedy Space Center in Florida. This year’s show brought together the best in military aircraft, such as the F/A-18 Super Hornet and F-16 Fighting Falcon, coupled with precision pilots and veteran astronauts to celebrate spaceflight and aviation. The event included a water rescue demonstration by the 920th Rescue Wing. Photo credit: NASA/Kim Shiflett

A female computer plotting compressor data in the Engine Research Building at the NACA’s Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory. The Computing Section was introduced during World War II to relieve short-handed research engineers of some of the tedious data-taking work. The computers made the initial computations and plotted the data graphically. The researcher then analyzed the data and either summarized the findings in a report or made modifications or ran the test again. With the introduction of mechanical computer systems in the 1950s the female computers learned how to encode the punch cards. As the data processing capabilities increased, fewer female computers were needed. Many left on their own to start families, while others earned mathematical degrees and moved into advanced positions.

ISS017-E-018075 (1 Oct. 2008) --- The Pueblo Chemical Depot in Colorado is featured in this image photographed by an Expedition 17 crewmember on the International Space Station. This view illustrates the unusual man-made landscape of the Pueblo Chemical Depot located near the city of Pueblo, Colorado. The Depot was built during World War II by the U.S. Army to house and ship ammunition needed for war efforts, and this role transitioned to missile repair and maintenance during the Cold War with the Soviet Union. The current use of the Depot is to house chemical munitions, but changes are underway by the U.S. Army Chemical Materials Agency to destroy these munitions and make the site environmentally safe for reuse -- while also protecting the surrounding local environment. The stippled landscape pattern visible from low Earth orbit is due to hundreds of concrete and earth-covered storage "igloos" that form ordered rows across the site (top). It is within these igloos that chemical munitions and other materials are stored. Larger, white roofed maintenance buildings once used for munitions storage were built with separate compartments to minimize potential damage from explosions. Other features visible in this detailed image include linear roadway (light tan) and rail (dark brown) lines, black irregular surface impoundments of water, and various rectangular office and industrial buildings at lower left.

The Allison Engine Company's A.G. Covell instructs mechanics from various divisions at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory on the operation of the Allison Basic Engine. The military had asked that the laboratory undertake an extensive program to improve the performance of the Allison V–1710 engine. The V–1710 was the only liquid-cooled engine used during World War II, and the military counted on it to power several types of fighter aircraft. The NACA instituted an Apprentice Program during the war to educate future mechanics, technicians, and electricians. The program was suspended for a number of years due to the increasing rates of military service by its participants. The laboratory continued its in-house education during the war, however, by offering a number of classes to its employees and lectures for the research staff. The classes and lectures were usually taught by fellow members of the staff, but occasionally external experts were brought in. The students in the Allison class in the Engine Research Building were taught how to completely disassemble and reassemble the engine components and systems. From left to right are Don Vining, Ed Cudlin, Gus DiNovo, George Larsen, Charles Diggs, Martin Lipes, Harley Roberts, Martin Berwaldt and John Dempsey. A.G. Covell is standing.

ISS037-E-021618 (26 Oct. 2013) --- Le Havre, France is featured in this image photographed by an Expedition 37 crew member on the International Space Station. The port city of Le Havre, France is located at the confluence of the Seine River and the English Channel along the northern coastline of the country (Upper Normandy region). Le Havre is the largest container port in France, and the second largest in terms of total traffic after Marseille. The extensive port facilities, visible at center, include numerous docks (large cargo ships are clearly visible in this detailed photograph), storage tanks for petro- and other chemicals, and large industrial and warehouse facilities with white rooftops. The port also serves seagoing pleasure cruise vessels. The southern edge of the port facility along the Seine includes a seawall-enclosed ship turning area (lower center). The Montgeon Forest, visible as a large green region at upper center, includes 200 hectares of woodland and 30 hectares of meadows and lawns. The urban area of Le Havre, to the north of the port facilities, was largely destroyed during World War II. After the war, the city was rebuilt following the vision of architect Auguste Perret. Perret favored the use of reinforced and precast concrete in building structures, and much of the city built between 1945 and 1964 follows his plan in both form and materials ? leading to the designation of Le Havre as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

General Henry “Hap” Arnold, Commander of the US Army Air Forces during World War II, addresses the staff at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory on November 9, 1944. Arnold told the employees assembled in the hangar, “You’ve got a dual task. You’ve got a job ahead of you to keep the army and the navy air forces equipped with the finest equipment that you can for this war. You also have the job of looking forward into the future and starting now those developments, those experiments, that are going to keep us in our present situation—ahead of the world in the air. And that is quite a large order, and I leave it right in your laps.” Arnold served on the NACA’s Executive Committee in Washington from 1938 to 1944 and had been a strong advocate for the creation of the new engine research facility in Cleveland. Arnold believed in continual research and development. He pressed the nation’s aviation leaders to pursue the new jet engine technology, while simultaneously pushing to increase the performance of the nation’s largest piston engine for the B–29 Superfortress program. The general’s hectic wartime agenda limited his visit to the Cleveland laboratory to just a few hours, but he toured several of the NACA’s new test facilities including the Static Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the Icing Research Tunnel, and a B–24 Liberator in the hangar.

A group of 60 Army Air Forces officers visited the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory on August 27, 1945. The laboratory enacted strict security regulations throughout World War II. During the final months of the war, however, the NACA began opening its doors to groups of writers, servicemen, and aviation industry leaders. These events were the first exposure of the new engine laboratory to the outside world. Grandstands were built alongside the Altitude Wind Tunnel specifically for group photographs. George Lewis, Raymond Sharp, and Addison Rothrock (right to left) addressed this group of officers in the Administration Building auditorium. Lewis was the NACA’s Director of Aeronautical Research, Sharp was the lab’s manager, and Rothrock was the lab’s chief of research. Abe Silverstein, Jesse Hall and others watch from the rear of the room. The group toured several facilities after the talks, including the Altitude Wind Tunnel and a new small supersonic wind tunnel. The visit concluded with a NACA versus Army baseball game and cookout.

STS042-80-000AV (22-30 Jan. 1992) --- Moscow is arranged as a series of concentric transportation routes crossed by straight spokes which lead away from the Kremlin at the city center. One of the inner rings, the Garden Ring, follows the line of the Sixteenth Century city wall and moat. Both this and the outer ring of the Moscow Circular Motorway can be seen. The Kremlin, established in the Twelfth Century, lies on the north bank of the winding Moskva River. Very large high-rise buildings were erected after World War II. Clusters of these produce a coarser pattern and can be detected at two points within the outer ring road. Of the five airports surrounding the city, Vnukovo Airport to the south is easily distinguished, and Sheremetyevo to the west can also be delineated. The once-secret Ramenskoye Airport, with the longest runways in the world, lies under clouds to the northeast.

A Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star jet aircraft on the tarmac at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) NACA Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory in Cleveland, Ohio. The Air Force aircraft was participating in the 1946 National Air Races over Labor Day weekend. The air races were held at the Cleveland Municipal Airport seven times between 1929 and 1939. The events included long distance, sprint, and circuit competitions, as well as aeronautical displays, demonstrations, and celebrities. The air races were suspended indefinitely in 1940 for a variety of reasons, including the start of World War II in Europe. The nature of the National Air Races changed dramatically when the event resumed in 1946. The introduction of jet aircraft, primarily the Lockheed P-80 seen here, required an entire separate division for each event. Since military pilots were the only ones with any jet aircraft experience, only they could participate in those divisions. In addition, the performance and quantity of commercially manufactured piston aircraft had increased dramatically during the war. By 1946, the custom-built racing aircraft that made the pre-war races so interesting were no longer present. The P-80 was the first US-designed and US-manufactured jet aircraft. Early models were tested during the war in NACA Lewis’ Altitude Wind Tunnel. A modified P-80 set the world’s speed record at the 1947 air races by achieving 620 miles per hour.

A Consolidated B-25M Liberator modified for icing research by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory. NACA Lewis performed a limited amount of icing research during World War II, but the program expanded significantly in 1946. The accumulation of ice on aircraft was a continual problem. The ice formations could result in extra weight, aerodynamic penalties, and blockage engine inlets. Although the Lewis icing researchers utilized numerous aircraft, the program’s two workhorses were the B-24M Liberator, seen here, and a North American XB-25E Mitchell. The Consolidated Aircraft Company created the four-engine bomber in the early 1940s. During World War II the bomber was employed on long-duration bombing missions in both Europe and the Pacific. Production of the B-24M version did not begin until October 1944 with the end of the war in Europe approaching. This resulted in scores of unneeded bombers when hostilities ended. This B-24M arrived at the NACA Lewis laboratory in November 1945. At Lewis the B-24M was repeatedly modified to study ice accretion on aircraft components. Researchers analyzed different anti-icing and deicing strategies and gathered statistical ice measurement data. The B-24M was also used to study ice buildup on jet engines. A General Electric I-16 engine was installed in the aircraft’s waist compartment with an air scoop on the top of the aircraft to duct air to the engine. Water spray nozzles inside the aircraft were employed to simulate icing conditions at the turbojet’s inlet.

An ammonia oxidation plant at the Plum Brook Ordnance Works near Sandusky, Ohio, which later became the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA) Plum Brook Station. During World War II the ordnance works produced trinitroluene (TNT), dinitrotoluene (DNT), and pentolite which were crated and shipped to an arsenal in Ravenna, Ohio. There, the explosives were packed into shells and sent to Allied forces overseas. Plum Brook was the third largest producer of TNT during World War II. Toluene, sulfuric acid, and nitric acid were used to manufacture the TNT. Nitric Acid is made by oxidizing ammonia, adding water, and concentrating it. The facility in this photograph was used for this oxidation. The structure included air compressors, filters, aftercoolers, power recovery systems, air receivers, heaters, ammonia gasifiers, gas mixers, cooler condensers, absorption columns, and bleaching columns. The Plum Brook Ordnance Works was shut down immediately after the war and remained vacant for the next ten years. NASA’s predecessor, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), acquired the 500 acres of the site in 1955 to build a nuclear test reactor. By 1963, the agency had acquired the entire 9000 acres from the Army. Almost all of the military facilities were removed in the early 1960s. Plum Brook Station contained over 30 test facilities at its peak in the late 1960s. Today there are four major facilities in operation.

A female computer at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory with a slide rule and Friden adding machine to make computations. The computer staff was introduced during World War II to relieve short-handed research engineers of some of the tedious computational work. The Computing Section was staffed by “computers,” young female employees, who often worked overnight when most of the tests were run. The computers obtained test data from the manometers and other instruments, made the initial computations, and plotted the data graphically. Researchers then analyzed the data and summarized the findings in a report or made modifications and ran the test again. There were over 400 female employees at the laboratory in 1944, including 100 computers. The use of computers was originally planned only for the duration of the war. The system was so successful that it was extended into the 1960s. The computers and analysts were located in the Altitude Wind Tunnel Shop and Office Building office wing during the 1940s and transferred to the new 8- by 6-Foot Supersonic Wind Tunnel in 1948.

The German Rocket Team, also known as the Von Braun Rocket Team, poses for a group photograph at Fort Bliss, Texas. After World War II ended in 1945, Dr. Wernher von Braun led some 120 of his Peenemuende Colleagues, who developed the V-2 rocket for the German military during the War, to the United Sttes under a contract to the U.S. Army Corps as part of Operation Paperclip. During the following five years the team worked on high altitude firings of the captured V-2 rockets at the White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico, and a guided missile development unit at Fort Bliss, Texas. In April 1950, the group was transferred to the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) at Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama, and continued to work on the development of the guided missiles for the U.S. Army until transferring to a newly established field center of the National Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA), George C. Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC).

A researcher at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory studies the fuel ignition process. Improved fuels and lubrication was an area of particular emphasis at the laboratory during World War II. The military sought to use existing types of piston engines in order to get large numbers of aircraft into the air as quickly as possible. To accomplish its goals, however, the military needed to increase the performance of these engines without having to wait for new models or extensive redesigns. The Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory was called on to lead this effort. The use of superchargers successfully enhanced engine performance, but the resulting heat increased engine knock [fuel detonation] and structural wear. These effects could be offset with improved cooling, lubrication, and fuel mixtures. The NACA researchers in the Fuels and Lubrication Division concentrated on new synthetic fuels, higher octane fuels, and fuel-injection systems. The laboratory studied 16 different types of fuel blends during the war, including extensive investigations of triptane and xylidine.

This fleet of military aircraft was used in the 1940s for research at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory in Cleveland, Ohio. The NACA Lewis flight research program was established in March 1943 to augment the lab’s wartime research efforts. NACA Lewis possessed a host of wind tunnels, test stands, and other ground facilities designed to replicate flight conditions, but actual flight tests remained an integral research tool. The military loaned NACA Lewis 15 different aircraft during World War II and six others in the six months following the end of hostilities. During the war these aircraft supported three main efforts: the improved performance of reciprocating engines, better fuel additives and mixtures, and deicing systems. The wartime researchers used the types of aircraft which the studies were intended to improve. After the war the research aircraft served as test beds to investigate engines or systems that often had little to do with the research aircraft. During the war, NACA Lewis’ three pilots were supported by 16 flight engineers, 36 mechanics, and 10 instrumentation specialists. The visible aircraft, from left to right, are a Boeing B-29 Superfortress, a Martin B-26A Marauder, two Consolidated B-24 Liberators, a Cessna UC-78 Bobcat, and a Northrop P-61 Black Widow. Partially obscured are a North American P-51 Mustang, a Bell P-63 King Cobra, a North American AT-6 Texan, and a Lockheed RA-29 Hudson.

The Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory acquired the five-seat Cessna UC–78 in March 1943 to maintain the proficiency of its pilots. The UC–78 was referred to as the “Bamboo Bomber” because of its wooden wings and tail and its fabric-covered steel body. The aircraft was produced in 1939 for civilian use, but the military soon began ordering them as training aircraft. The military also began using the aircraft for personnel transport. Cessna produced over 4600 of the aircraft for the military during World War II. The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics’ (NACA) pilot Howard Lilly flew the UC–78 extensively during its residency in Cleveland. The aircraft was used for ferrying staff members to nearby locations and helping the pilots keep their flying hours up. The UC–78 was transferred in October 1945.

In the town of Baikonur, Kazakhstan, the Expedition 31/32 backup crew participated in Victory Day celebration activities May 9, 2012 as they took a break from training for the launch of the Soyuz TMA-04M May 15 to the International Space Station. Victory Day commemorates the triumph of Russia over Nazi Germany in World War II, one of Russia’s most solemn occasions. From left to right holding flowers are backup NASA Flight Engineer Kevin Ford, backup Soyuz Commander Oleg Novitskiy and backup Flight Engineer Evgeny Tarelkin. The prime crew, Gennady Padalka, Sergei Revin and NASA’s Joe Acaba, are training for their launch in the Soyuz vehicle on May 15 for a four-month mission on the orbital complex. NASA/Victor Zelentsov

S85-28647 (28 Feb 1985) --- The seven members of the STS-51D mission are pictured in the midst of a busy training schedule in preparation for NASA's 16th Space Shuttle flight, currently planned for April of this year. The crewmembers are (front row, left to right), Karol J. Bobko, commander; Donald E. Williams, pilot; Rhea Seddon and Jeffrey A. Hoffman, mission specialists; and (back row) S. David Griggs, mission specialist; and Charles D. Walker and United States Senator Jake Garn (Republican - Utah) both payload specialists. Walker represents McDonnell-Douglas Corporation. EDITOR'S NOTE: Mission specialist S. David Griggs died June 17, 1989, near Earle, Arkansas, in the crash of a World-War-II-era training plane.

ISS034-E-61717 (5 March 2013) --- One of the Expedition 34 crew members aboard the Earth-orbiting International Space Station captured this image of Belgrade, the capital city of the Republic of Serbia. Located at the confluence of the Danube and Sava Rivers, the Belgrade metropolitan area has a population of 1.65 million (2011 census information) which ranks it as one of the largest such areas in southeastern Europe. Human occupation of the Belgrade area can be traced back over 6000 years. According to historical reports, a city that eventually became Belgrade existed by at least 279 BC. The core of old Belgrade – known as Kalemegdan –is located along the right banks of both the Danube and the Sava Rivers (image center). To the west across the Sava, Novi Beograd (New Belgrade) was constructed following World War II. The photograph was acquired on March 5, 2013 with a digital camera using the equivalent of a 700 millimeter lens.

Dr. Wernher von Braun served as Marshall Space Flight Center's first director from July 1, 1960 until January 27, 1970, when he was appointed NASA Deputy Associate Administrator for Planning. Following World War II, Dr. von Braun and his German colleagues arrived in the United States under Project Paper Clip to continue their rocket development work. In 1950, von Braun and his rocket team were transferred from Ft. Bliss, Texas to Huntsville, Alabama to work for the Army's rocket program at Redstone Arsenal and later, NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center. Under von Braun's leadership, Marshall developed the Saturn V launch vehicle which took Apollo astronauts to the moon. Dr. von Braun died in Alexandria, Va., on June 16, 1977, seven years after his NASA appointment. This photo was taken at the site where he was laid to rest.

In the town of Baikonur, Kazakhstan, the Expedition 31/32 backup crew participated in Victory Day celebration activities May 9, 2012 as they took a break from training for the launch of the Soyuz TMA-04M May 15 to the International Space Station. Victory Day commemorates the triumph of Russia over Nazi Germany in World War II, one of Russia’s most solemn occasions. From left to right holding flowers are backup NASA Flight Engineer Kevin Ford, backup Soyuz Commander Oleg Novitskiy and backup Flight Engineer Evgeny Tarelkin. The prime crew, Gennady Padalka, Sergei Revin and NASA’s Joe Acaba, are training for their launch in the Soyuz vehicle on May 15 for a four-month mission on the orbital complex. NASA/Victor Zelentsov

Dr. Eberhard Rees served as director of the Marshall Space Flight Center from March 1, 1970 until January 19, 1973 when he retired from NASA. Prior to his appointment as Director, Rees served as the Center's deputy director under Dr. Wernher von Braun, 1960-1970. Rees came to the United States as part of the Dr. Wernher von Braun's German Rocket team following World War II. He transferred to Huntsville, Alabama from Fort Bliss, Texas in 1950 to work for the Army's rocket program at Redstone Arsenal. From 1956 to 1960 he served as deputy director of development operations at the Army Ballistic Missile Agency under von Braun. In 1960 Rees was transferred to NASA's Marshall Center.

NACA staff members queue up in the Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory cafeteria in August 1952. The cafeteria originally opened in November 1942 inside the south end of the Engine Research Building. A non-profit Exchange was established to handle the finances, while Helen Thompson, a German born pastry cook, ran the day-to-day operations. Employees could also purchase her bakery to take home with them. Services were expanded to include a lunch counter and a food cart that ferried meals to the facilities. By the end of World War II the cafeteria was serving nearly 1600 meals daily in a space designed for half of that. In 1951 a new wing was added to the Utilities Building to accommodate an expanded cafeteria, seen in this photograph. In the mid-1960s an auxiliary unit was built in the new Development Engineering Building located across Brookpark Road.

Dr. Wernher von Braun served as Marshall Space Flight Center's first director from July 1, 1960 until January 27, 1970, when he was appointed NASA Deputy Associate Administrator for Plarning. Following World War II, Dr. von Braun and his German colleagues arrived in the United States under Project Paperclip to continue their rocket development work. In 1950, von Braun and his rocket team were transferred from Ft. Bliss, Texas to Huntsville, Alabama to work for the Army's rocket program at Redstone Arsenal and later, NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center. Under von Braun's leadership, Marshall developed the Saturn V launch vehicle which took Apollo astronauts to the moon.

On September 8, 1960 President Dwight D. Eisenhower visited Huntsville, Alabama to dedicate a new NASA field center in honor of General George C. Marshall, Eisenhower's wartime colleague and the founder of the famous Marshall Plan for European recover after World War II. The new George C. Marshall Space Flight Center was placed under the control of Dr. Wernher Von Braun shown here talking with President Eisenhower. As parto f his remarks dedicating the center, President Eisenhowe refereed to General Marshall as a "man of yar, yet a builder of peace". the Marshall Center's first major assignment including building the huge Saturn V rocket that launched human beings on their first journey to the surface of the moon in 1969.

Researcher Robert Miller led an investigation into the combustor performance of a German Jumo 004 engine at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory. The Jumo 004 powered the world's first operational jet fighter, the Messerschmitt Me 262, beginning in 1942. The Me 262 was the only jet aircraft used in combat during World War II. The eight-stage axial-flow compressor Jumo 004 produced 2000 pounds of thrust. The US Army Air Forces provided the NACA with a Jumo 004 engine in 1945 to study the compressor’s design and performance. Conveniently the engine’s designer Anselm Franz had recently arrived at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in nearby Dayton, Ohio as part of Project Paperclip. The Lewis researchers used a test rig in the Engine Research Building to analyze one of the six combustion chambers. It was difficult to isolate a single combustor’s performance when testing an entire engine. The combustion efficiency, outlet-temperature distribution, and total pressure drop were measured. The researchers determined the Jumo 004’s maximum performance was 5000 revolutions per minute at a 27,000 foot altitude and 11,000 revolutions per minute at a 45,000 foot altitude. The setup in this photograph was created for a tour of NACA Lewis by members of the Institute of Aeronautical Science on March 22, 1945.

A General Electric TG-180 turbojet installed in the Altitude Wind Tunnel at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory. In 1943 the military asked General Electric to develop an axial-flow jet engine which became the TG-180. The military understood that the TG-180 would not be ready during World War II but recognized the axial-flow compressor’s long-term potential. Although the engine was bench tested in April 1944, it was not flight tested until February 1946. The TG-180 was brought to the Altitude Wind Tunnel in 1945 for a series of investigations. The studies, which continued intermittently into 1948, analyzed an array of performance issues. NACA modifications steadily improved the TG-180’s performance, including the first successful use of an afterburner. The Lewis researchers studied a 29-inch diameter afterburner over a range of altitude conditions using several different types of flameholders and fuel systems. Lewis researchers concluded that a three-stage flameholder with its largest stage upstream was the best burner configuration. Although the TG-180 (also known as the J35) was not the breakthrough engine that the military had hoped for, it did power the Douglas D-558-I Skystreak to a world speed record on August 20, 1947. The engines were also used on the Republic F-84 Thunderjet and the Northrup F-89 Scorpion.

A group of National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) officials and local dignitaries were on hand on May 8, 1942, to witness the Initiation of Research at the NACA's new Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory in Cleveland, Ohio. The group in this photograph was in the control room of the laboratory's first test facility, the Engine Propeller Research Building. The NACA press release that day noted, "First actual research activities in what is to be the largest aircraft engine research laboratory in the world was begun today at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics laboratory at the Cleveland Municipal Airport.” The ceremony, however, was largely symbolic since most of the laboratory was still under construction. Dr. George W. Lewis, the NACA's Director of Aeronautical Research, and John F. Victory, NACA Secretary, are at the controls in this photograph. Airport Manager John Berry, former City Manager William Hopkins, NACA Assistant Secretary Ed Chamberlain, Langley Engineer-in-Charge Henry Reid, Executive Engineer Carlton Kemper, and Construction Manager Raymond Sharp are also present. The propeller building contained two torque stands to test complete engines at ambient conditions. The facility was primarily used at the time to study engine lubrication and cooling systems for World War II aircraft, which were required to perform at higher altitudes and longer ranges than previous generations.

The Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory’s first aircraft, a Martin B–26B Marauder, parked in front of the Flight Research Building in September 1943. The military loaned the B–26B to the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) to augment the lab’s studies of the Wright Aeronautical R–2800 engines. The military wanted to improve the engine cooling in order to increase the bomber’s performance. On March 17, 1943, the B–26B performed the very first research flight at the NACA’s new engine laboratory. The B–26B received its “Widowmaker” nickname during the rushed effort to transition the new aircraft from design to production and into the sky. During World War II, however, the B–26B proved itself to be a capable war machine. The U.S. lost fewer Marauders than any other type of bomber employed in the war. The B–26B was originally utilized at low altitudes in the Pacific but had its most success at high altitudes over Europe. The B–26B’s flight tests in Cleveland during 1943 mapped the R-2800 engine’s behavior at different altitudes and speeds. The researchers were then able to correlate engine performance in ground facilities to expected performance at different altitudes. They found that air speed, cowl flap position, angle of attack, propeller thrust, and propeller speed influenced inlet pressure recovery and exhaust distribution. The flight testing proceeded quickly, and the B–26B was transferred elsewhere in October 1943.

Researchers at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory conducted an extensive investigation into the composition of clouds and their effect on aircraft icing. The researcher in this photograph is installing cameras on a Beach AT-11 Kansan in order to photograph water droplets during flights through clouds. The twin engine AT-11 was the primary training aircraft for World War II bomber crews. The NACA acquired this aircraft in January 1946, shortly after the end of the war. The NACA Lewis’ icing research during the war focused on the resolution of icing problems for specific military aircraft. In 1947 the laboratory broadened its program and began systematically measuring and categorizing clouds and water droplets. The three main thrusts of the Lewis icing flight research were the development of better instrumentation, the accumulation of data on ice buildup during flight, and the measurement of droplet sizes in clouds. The NACA researchers developed several types of measurement devices for the icing flights, including modified cameras. The National Research Council of Canada experimented with high-speed cameras with a large magnification lens to photograph the droplets suspended in the air. In 1951 NACA Lewis developed and flight tested their own camera with a magnification of 32. The camera, mounted to an external strut, could be used every five seconds as the aircraft reached speeds up to 150 miles per hour. The initial flight tests through cumulus clouds demonstrated that droplet size distribution could be studied.

A Consolidated B–24D Liberator (left), Boeing B–29 Superfortress (background), and Lockheed RA–29 Hudson (foreground) parked inside the Flight Research Building at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory in Cleveland, Ohio. A P–47G Thunderbolt and P–63A King Cobra are visible in the background. The laboratory utilized 15 different aircraft during the final 2.5 years of World War II. This starkly contrasts with the limited-quantity, but long-duration aircraft of the NASA’s modern fleet. The Flight Research Building is a 272- by 150-foot hangar with an internal height ranging from 40 feet at the sides to 90 feet at its apex. The steel support trusses were pin-connected at the top with tension members extending along the corrugated transite walls down to the floor. The 37.5-foot-tall and 250-foot-long doors on either side can be opened in sections. The hangar included a shop area and stock room along the far wall, and a single-story office wing with nine offices, behind the camera. The offices were later expanded. The hangar has been in continual use since its completion in December 1942. Nearly 70 different aircraft have been sheltered here over the years. Temporary offices were twice constructed over half of the floor area when office space was at a premium.

Edward Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, the Duke of Windsor, visits the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory in Cleveland, Ohio. He is seen in this photograph shaking hands with Associate Director Abe Silverstein. Lewis Director Ray Sharp is in the background. Cleveland mayor Thomas Burke and other local officials were also on hand to greet Edward. Silverstein led the group on a tour of Lewis’ new 8- by 6-Foot Supersonic Wind Tunnel where the Duke inquired about the operation of the facility’s flexible walls, the types of components tested, and the generation of airflow. The Duke was in town in 1951 to promote his new autobiography, A King’s Story, at the American Booksellers Convention. Edward had assumed the British throne in January 1936, only to renounce the position less than a year later to controversially marry Wallis Simpson. Ongoing concerns over the couple’s relationship to the German government resulted in his World War II assignment to the Bahamas. Edward spent the remainder of his life in France.

Dr. von Braun is looking out from a 10th floor window of building 4200 at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC). He was the first Center Director and served as the Director from July 1960 through February 1970. Following World War II, Dr. von Braun and his German colleagues arrived in the United States under the Project Paperclip (American acquisition of German rocket experts) to continue their rocket development work. In 1950, von Braun and his German Rocket Team (also called the Peenemuende Team) were transferred from Ft. Bliss, Texas to Huntsville, Alabama to work for the Army's rocket program at Redstone Arsenal and later, NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC). Under Dr. von Braun's leadership, MSFC developed the Saturn V launch vehicle, which placed the first men, two American astronauts, on the Moon. Wernher von Braun's life was dedicated to expanding man's knowledge through the exploration of space.

In 1946 the Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory became the NACA’s official icing research center. In addition to the Icing Research Tunnel, the lab possessed several aircraft modified for icing work, including a Consolidated B-24M Liberator and a North American XB-25E Mitchell, seen here. The XB-25E’s frequent engine fires allegedly resulted in its “Flamin’ Maimie” nickname. The aircraft’s nose art, visible in this photograph, includes a leather-jacketed mechanic with an extinguisher fleeing a fiery woman. North American developed the B-25 in the mid-1930s as a transport aircraft, but it was hurriedly reconfigured as a medium bomber for World War II. This XB-25E was a single prototype designed in 1942 specifically to test an exhaust gas ice prevention system developed by NACA researcher Lewis Rodert. The system circulated the engines’ hot bleed air to the wings, windshield, and tail. The XB-25E was utilized at the NACA’s Ames Aeronautical Laboratory for two years before being transferred to Cleveland in July 1944. NACA Lewis mechanics modified the aircraft further by installing electrical heating in the front fuselage, propellers, inboard sing, cowls, and antennae. Lewis pilots flew the B-24M and XB-25E into perilous weather conditions all across the country to study both deicing technologies and the physics of ice-producing clouds. These dangerous flights led to advances in weather sensing instruments and flight planning.

The construction offices for the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics’ (NACA) new Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory were originally opened in a small Radio House on the adjacent airport property. By July 1941, the staff had expanded to the point that a new shelter was needed. The NACA took possession of what was thereafter referred to as the “Farm House.” It was the only residential structure at the site. The Farm House served as the NACA’s main office until the Administration Building was opened in December 1942. The Farm House was built in 1827 and purchased by J.B. Perkins in 1849. Perkins did not reside in the house but hired caretakers to maintain the house and property and raise horses. The disposition of the land in the years leading up to the NACA’s takeover is not clear. After World War II, NACA management did not want visitors’ first impression to be an old farm house. The building was significantly modified to improve its size, appearance, shape, and added many modern conveniences. In the early 1950s the entire structure was relocated to the lot directly behind the Administration Building. It contained personnel and administrative offices for the lab. The Farm House was eventually demolished in 1973 due to deterioration of the wooden structure.

The Army Air Forces lent the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory a Bell P–63A King Cobra in October 1943 to complement the lab's extensive efforts to improve the Allison V–1710 engine. The V–1710-powered P–63A was a single-seat fighter that could reach speeds of 410 miles per hour and an altitude of 43,000 feet. The fighter, first produced in 1942, was an improvement on Bell’s P–39, but persistent performance problems at high altitudes prevented its acceptance by the Air Corps. Instead many of the P–63s were transferred to the Soviet Union. Almost every test facility at the NACA’s engine lab was used to study the Allison V–1710 engine and its supercharger during World War II. Researchers were able to improve the efficiency, capacity and pressure ratio of the supercharger. They found that improved cooling significantly reduced engine knock in the fuel. Once the researchers were satisfied with their improvements, the new supercharger and cooling components were installed on the P–63A. The Flight Research Division first established the aircraft’s normal flight performance parameters such as speed at various altitudes, rate of climb, and peak altitude. Ensuing flights established the performance parameters of the new configuration in order to determine the improved performance. The program increased V–1710’s horsepower from 1650 to 2250.

ISS021-E-015710 (27 Oct. 2009) --- Pearl Harbor, Hawaii is featured in this image photographed by an Expedition 21 crew member on the International Space Station. This detailed view illustrates the southern coastline of the Hawaiian island of Oahu including Pearl Harbor. On Dec. 7, 1941 ? 68 years ago ? a surprise attack by the Japanese Navy on Pearl Harbor and other targets on the island of Oahu precipitated the entry of the United States into World War II. Today, Pearl Harbor is still in use as a major United States Navy installation, and with Honolulu is one of the most heavily developed parts of the Island. Comparison between this image and a detailed astronaut photograph of Pearl Harbor taken in 2003 suggests that little observable land use or land cover change has occurred in the area over the past six years. The most significant change is the addition of more naval vessels to the Reserve Fleet anchorage in Middle Loch (center). The urban areas of Waipahu, Pearl City, and Aliamanu border the Harbor to the northwest, north, and east. The built-up areas, recognized by linear streets and white rooftops, contrast sharply with the reddish volcanic soils and green vegetated hillslopes of the surrounding areas.

A mechanic and apprentice work on a wooden impeller in the Fabrication Shop at the NACA Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory. The 260-person Fabrication Division created almost all of the equipment and models used at the laboratory. The Technical Services Building, referred to as the “Fab Shop”, contained a number of specialized shops in the 1940s and 1950s. These included a Machine Shop, Sheet Metal Shop, Wood and Pattern Shop, Instrument Shop, Thermocouple Shop, Heat Treating Shop, Metallurgical Laboratory, and Fabrication Office. The Machine Shop fabricated research equipment not commercially available. During World War II these technicians produced high-speed cameras for combustion research, impellers and other supercharger components, and key equipment for the lab’s first supersonic wind tunnel. The Wood and Pattern Shop created everything from control panels and cabinets to aircraft model molds for sheet metal work. The Sheet Metal Shop had the ability to work with 0.01 to 4-inches thick steel plates. The Instrument Shop specialized in miniature parts and instrumentation, while the Thermocouple Shop standardized the installation of pitot tubes and thermocouples. The Metallurgical Laboratory contained a control lab for the Heat Treating Shop and a service lab for the NACA Lewis research divisions. The Heat Treating Shop heated metal parts to optimize their physical properties and contained a Precision Castings Foundry to manufacture equipment made of heat resisting alloys.

A cancer patient undergoes treatment in the Neutron Therapy Treatment Facility, or Cylotron, at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Lewis Research Center. After World War II Lewis researchers became interested in nuclear energy for propulsion. The focused their efforts on thermodynamics and strength of materials after radiation. In 1950 an 80-person Nuclear Reactor Division was created, and a cyclotron was built behind the Materials and Structures Laboratory. An in-house nuclear school was established to train these researchers in their new field. NASA cancelled its entire nuclear program in January 1973, just as the cyclotron was about to resume operations after a major upgrade. In 1975 the Cleveland Clinic Foundation partnered with NASA Lewis to use the cyclotron for a new type of radiation treatment for cancer patients. The cyclotron split beryllium atoms which caused neutrons to be released. The neutrons were streamed directly at the patient’s tumor. The facility had a dual-beam system that could target the tumor both vertically and horizontally. Over the course of five years, the cyclotron was used to treat 1200 patients. It was found to be particularly effective on salivary gland, prostrate, and other tumors. It was not as successful with tumors of the central nervous system. The program was terminated in 1980 as the Clinic began concentrating on non-radiation treatments.

Zella Morewitz poses with a model of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory, currently the NASA Glenn Research Center. The model was displayed in the Administration Building during the construction of the laboratory in the early 1940s. Detailed models of the individual test facilities were also fabricated and displayed in the facilities. The laboratory was built on a wedge of land between the Cleveland Municipal Airport on the far side and the deep curving valley etched by the Rocky River on the near end. Roughly only a third of the laboratory's semicircle footprint was initially utilized. Additional facilities were added to the remaining areas in the years after World War II. In the late 1950s the site was supplemented by the acquisition of additional adjacent land. Morewitz joined the NACA in 1935 as a secretary in the main office at the Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory. In September 1940 she took on the task of setting up and guiding an office dedicated to the design of the NACA’s new engine research laboratory. Morewitz and the others in the design office transferred to Cleveland in December 1941 to expedite the construction. Morewitz served as Manager Ray Sharp’s secretary for six years and was a popular figure at the new laboratory. In December 1947 Morewitz announced her engagement to Langley researcher Sidney Batterson and moved back to Virginia.

The resolution of the Boeing B-29 Superfortress’ engine cooling problems was one of the Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory’s (AERL) key contributions to the World War II effort. The B-29 leapfrogged previous bombers in size, speed, and altitude capabilities. The B–29 was intended to soar above anti-aircraft fire and make pinpoint bomb drops onto strategic targets. Four Wright Aeronautical R-3350 engines powered the massive aircraft. The engines, however, frequently strained and overheated due to payload overloading. This resulted in a growing number of engine fires that often resulted in crashes. The military asked the NACA to tackle the overheating issue. Full-scale engine tests on a R–3350 engine in the Prop House demonstrated that a NACA-designed impeller increased the fuel injection system’s flow rate. Single-cylinder studies resolved a valve failure problem by a slight extension of the cylinder head, and researchers in the Engine Research Building combated uneven heating with a new fuel injection system. Investigations during the summer of 1944 in the Altitude Wind Tunnel, which could simulate flight conditions at high altitudes, led to reduction of drag and improved air flow by reshaping the cowling inlet and outlet. The NACA modifications were then flight tested on a B-29 bomber that was brought to the AERL.

A group of apprentices takes a break from their studies to pose for a photograph at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory. To facilitate the close interaction of the lab’s engineers, mechanics, technicians, and scientists, Lewis Director Ray Sharp established a four-year apprentice program to train craftsmen on a particular trade and basic scientific principles. The apprentice school covered a variety of trades, from aircraft mechanic to electronic instrumentation, machinist, and altitude systems mechanic. The school was established in 1942, but faltered when over 90 percent of its students entered the military. After World War II, 40 of the original members returned to the NACA lab. In some cases they were bumped to journeymen positions because of training received in the military. The honorary first class in 1949 had only 15 graduates, but the number steadily increased to 45 with the next class in 1952 and to 110 in 1957. There were over 600 graduates by 1969, and the program remained strong for decades. Many of the laboratory’s future managers began their careers as apprentices. The program, which was certified by both the Department of Labor and the State of Ohio, included classroom lectures, the study of models, and hands-on work. The apprentices rotated through the various shops and facilities to provide them with a well-rounded understanding of the work at the lab.

The Flight Operations crew stands before a Republic P-47G Thunderbolt at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory in Cleveland, Ohio. The laboratory’s Flight Research Section was responsible for conducting a variety of research flights. During World War II most of the test flights complemented the efforts in ground-based facilities to improve engine cooling systems or study advanced fuel mixtures. The Republic P–47G was loaned to the laboratory to test NACA modifications to the Wright R–2800 engine’s cooling system at higher altitudes. The laboratory has always maintained a fleet of aircraft so different research projects were often conducted concurrently. The flight research program requires an entire section of personnel to accomplish its work. This staff generally consists of a flight operations group, which includes the section chief, pilots and administrative staff; a flight maintenance group with technicians and mechanics responsible for inspecting aircraft, performing checkouts and installing and removing flight instruments; and a flight research group that integrates the researchers’ experiments into the aircraft. The staff at the time of this March 1944 photograph included 3 pilots, 16 planning and analysis engineers, 36 mechanics and technicians, 10 instrumentation specialists, 6 secretaries and 5 computers.

A materials researcher at the NACA’s Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory examines a surface crack detection apparatus in the Materials and Stresses Building during December 1952. Materials research was an important aspect of propulsion technology. Advanced engine systems relied upon alloys, and later composites, that were strong, lightweight, and impervious to high temperatures. Jet engines which became increasingly popular in the late 1940s, produced much higher temperatures than piston engines. These higher temperatures stressed engine components, particularly turbines. Although Lewis materials research began during World War II, the Materials and Thermodynamics Division was not created until 1949. Its primary laboratories were located in the Materials and Stresses Building. The group sought to create new, improved materials and to improve engine design through increased understanding of materials. The Lewis materials researchers of the 1950s made contributions to nickel-aluminum alloys, cermet blades, metal matrix composites, oxide dispersion strengthened superalloys, and universal slopes.